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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  21
  22ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  23
  24
  25class _Generator(type):
  26    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  27        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  28
  29        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  30        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  31            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  32
  33        return klass
  34
  35
  36class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  37    """
  38    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  39
  40    Args:
  41        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  42            Default: False.
  43        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  44            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  45            True or 'always': Always quote.
  46            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  47        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  48            Default: False.
  49        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  50            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  51            Default: 2.
  52        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  53            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  54            Default: 2.
  55        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  56            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  57            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  58            False: Disables function name normalization.
  59        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  60            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  61        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  62            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  63            Default: 3
  64        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  65            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  66            Default: False
  67        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  68            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  69            line length.
  70            Default: 80
  71        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  72            Default: True
  73    """
  74
  75    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  76        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  77        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
  78        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
  79        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  82        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  83        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  84        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  85        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  86        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  87        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  88        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  91        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  95        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
  96        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
  97        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  98        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
  99        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 100        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 101        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 102        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 103        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 104        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 105        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 106        exp.JSONExtract: lambda self, e: self.func(
 107            "JSON_EXTRACT", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 108        ),
 109        exp.JSONExtractScalar: lambda self, e: self.func(
 110            "JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 111        ),
 112        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 113        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 114        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 115        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 116        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 117        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 118        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 119        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 120        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 121        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 122        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 127        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 128        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 129        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 130        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 131            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 132        ),
 133        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 134        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 135        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 136        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 137        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 138        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 139        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 140        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 141        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 142        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 143        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 144        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 145        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 146        exp.Timestamp: lambda self, e: self.func("TIMESTAMP", e.this, e.expression),
 147        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 148        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 149        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 150        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 151        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 152        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 153        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 154        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 155        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 156        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 157        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 158    }
 159
 160    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 161    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 162    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 163
 164    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 165    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 166    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 167
 168    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 169    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 170
 171    # Always do union distinct or union all
 172    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 173
 174    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 175    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 176
 177    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 178    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 179
 180    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 181    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 182
 183    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 184    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 185
 186    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 187    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 188
 189    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 190    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 191
 192    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 193    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 194
 195    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 196    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 197
 198    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 199    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 200
 201    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 202    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 203
 204    # Whether join hints should be generated
 205    JOIN_HINTS = True
 206
 207    # Whether table hints should be generated
 208    TABLE_HINTS = True
 209
 210    # Whether query hints should be generated
 211    QUERY_HINTS = True
 212
 213    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 214    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 215
 216    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 217    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 218
 219    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 220    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 221
 222    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 223    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 224
 225    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 226    RETURNING_END = True
 227
 228    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 229    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 230
 231    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 232    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 233
 234    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 235    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 236
 237    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 238    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 239
 240    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 241    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 242    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 243    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 244
 245    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 246    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 247
 248    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 249    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 250
 251    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 252    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 253
 254    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 255    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 256
 257    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 258    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 259
 260    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 261    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 262
 263    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 264    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 265
 266    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 267    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 268
 269    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 270    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 271
 272    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 273    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 274
 275    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 276    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 277
 278    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 279    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 280
 281    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 282    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 283
 284    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 285    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 286
 287    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 288    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 289
 290    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 291    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 292
 293    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 294    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 295
 296    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 297    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 298
 299    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 300    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 301
 302    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 303    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 304
 305    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 306    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 307
 308    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 309    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 310
 311    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 312    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 313
 314    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 315    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 316
 317    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 318    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 319
 320    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 321    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 322    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 323
 324    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 325    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 326
 327    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 328    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 329
 330    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 331    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 332
 333    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 334    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 335
 336    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 337    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 338
 339    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 340    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 341
 342    # Whether or not union modifiers apply to the outer union or select.
 343    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 344    # True means limit 1 happens after the union, False means it it happens on y.
 345    OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS = True
 346
 347    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 348    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 349
 350    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 351    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 352
 353    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 354    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 355
 356    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 357    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 358
 359    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 360    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 361
 362    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 363    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 364
 365    # The HEX function name
 366    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 367
 368    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 369    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 370
 371    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 372        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 373        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 374        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 375        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 376        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 377        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 378        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 379        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 380        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 381        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 382    }
 383
 384    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 385        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 386        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 387        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 388        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 389        "DAYS": "DAY",
 390        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 391        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 392        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 393        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 394    }
 395
 396    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 397        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 398        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 399        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 400        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 401        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 402            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 403            if e.args.get("windows")
 404            else ""
 405        ),
 406    }
 407
 408    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 409
 410    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 411
 412    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 413    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 414
 415    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 416        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 417        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 418        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 419        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 420        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 421        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 422        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 423        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 424        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 425        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 426        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 427        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 428        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 429        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 430        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 431        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 432        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 433        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 434        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 435        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 436        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 437        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 438        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 439        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 440        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 441        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 442        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 443        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 444        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 445        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 446        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 447        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 448        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 449        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 450        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 451        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 452        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 453        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 454        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 455        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 456        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 457        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 458        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 459        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 460        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 461        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 462        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 463        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 464        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 465        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 466        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 467        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 468        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 469        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 470        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 471        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 472        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 473        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 474        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 475        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 476        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 477        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 478        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 479        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 480        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 481        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 482        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 483        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 484        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 485        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 486        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 487        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 488        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 489        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 490        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 491        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 492        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 493        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 494        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 495    }
 496
 497    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 498    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 499
 500    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 501    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 502        exp.Create,
 503        exp.Delete,
 504        exp.Drop,
 505        exp.From,
 506        exp.Insert,
 507        exp.Join,
 508        exp.Select,
 509        exp.Union,
 510        exp.Update,
 511        exp.Where,
 512        exp.With,
 513    )
 514
 515    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 516    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 517        exp.Binary,
 518        exp.Union,
 519    )
 520
 521    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 522    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 523        exp.Column,
 524        exp.Literal,
 525        exp.Neg,
 526        exp.Paren,
 527    )
 528
 529    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 530        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 531        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 532        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 533        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 534    }
 535
 536    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 537    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 538
 539    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 540
 541    __slots__ = (
 542        "pretty",
 543        "identify",
 544        "normalize",
 545        "pad",
 546        "_indent",
 547        "normalize_functions",
 548        "unsupported_level",
 549        "max_unsupported",
 550        "leading_comma",
 551        "max_text_width",
 552        "comments",
 553        "dialect",
 554        "unsupported_messages",
 555        "_escaped_quote_end",
 556        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 557        "_next_name",
 558    )
 559
 560    def __init__(
 561        self,
 562        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 563        identify: str | bool = False,
 564        normalize: bool = False,
 565        pad: int = 2,
 566        indent: int = 2,
 567        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 568        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 569        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 570        leading_comma: bool = False,
 571        max_text_width: int = 80,
 572        comments: bool = True,
 573        dialect: DialectType = None,
 574    ):
 575        import sqlglot
 576        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 577
 578        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 579        self.identify = identify
 580        self.normalize = normalize
 581        self.pad = pad
 582        self._indent = indent
 583        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 584        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 585        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 586        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 587        self.comments = comments
 588        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 589
 590        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 591        self.normalize_functions = (
 592            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 593        )
 594
 595        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 596        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 597            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 598        )
 599        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 600            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 601        )
 602
 603        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 604
 605    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 606        """
 607        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 608
 609        Args:
 610            expression: The syntax tree.
 611            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 612                it is safer to copy.
 613
 614        Returns:
 615            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 616        """
 617        if copy:
 618            expression = expression.copy()
 619
 620        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 621
 622        self.unsupported_messages = []
 623        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 624
 625        if self.pretty:
 626            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 627
 628        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 629            return sql
 630
 631        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 632            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 633                logger.warning(msg)
 634        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 635            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 636
 637        return sql
 638
 639    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 640        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 641        if (
 642            not expression.parent
 643            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 644            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 645        ):
 646            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 647
 648            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 649
 650        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 651            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 652
 653            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 654
 655        return expression
 656
 657    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 658        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 659            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 660        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 661
 662    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 663        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 664
 665    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 666        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 667
 668    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 669        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 670        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 671        return comment
 672
 673    def maybe_comment(
 674        self,
 675        sql: str,
 676        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 677        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 678        separated: bool = False,
 679    ) -> str:
 680        comments = (
 681            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 682            if self.comments
 683            else None
 684        )
 685
 686        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 687            return sql
 688
 689        comments_sql = " ".join(
 690            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 691        )
 692
 693        if not comments_sql:
 694            return sql
 695
 696        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 697
 698        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 699            return (
 700                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 701                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 702                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 703            )
 704
 705        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 706
 707    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 708        this_sql = (
 709            self.sql(expression)
 710            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 711            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 712        )
 713        if not this_sql:
 714            return "()"
 715
 716        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 717        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 718
 719    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 720        original = self.identify
 721        self.identify = False
 722        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 723        self.identify = original
 724        return result
 725
 726    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 727        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 728            return name.upper()
 729        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 730            return name.lower()
 731        return name
 732
 733    def indent(
 734        self,
 735        sql: str,
 736        level: int = 0,
 737        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 738        skip_first: bool = False,
 739        skip_last: bool = False,
 740    ) -> str:
 741        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 742            return sql
 743
 744        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 745        lines = sql.split("\n")
 746
 747        return "\n".join(
 748            (
 749                line
 750                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 751                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 752            )
 753            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 754        )
 755
 756    def sql(
 757        self,
 758        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 759        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 760        comment: bool = True,
 761    ) -> str:
 762        if not expression:
 763            return ""
 764
 765        if isinstance(expression, str):
 766            return expression
 767
 768        if key:
 769            value = expression.args.get(key)
 770            if value:
 771                return self.sql(value)
 772            return ""
 773
 774        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 775
 776        if callable(transform):
 777            sql = transform(self, expression)
 778        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 779            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 780
 781            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 782                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 783            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 784                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 785            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 786                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 787            else:
 788                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 789        else:
 790            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 791
 792        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 793
 794    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 795        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 796        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 797        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 798
 799    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 800        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 801        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 802        options = expression.args.get("options")
 803        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 804        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 805        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 806        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 807        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 808
 809    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 810        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 811            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 812        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 813        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 814
 815    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 816        return ".".join(
 817            self.sql(part)
 818            for part in (
 819                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 820                expression.args.get("db"),
 821                expression.args.get("table"),
 822                expression.args.get("this"),
 823            )
 824            if part
 825        )
 826
 827    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 828        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 829
 830        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 831            join_mark = ""
 832            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 833
 834        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 835
 836    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 837        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 838        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 839        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 840        return f"{position}{this}"
 841
 842    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 843        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 844        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 845        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 846        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 847        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 848        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 849        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 850        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 851
 852        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 853            kind = ""
 854
 855        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 856
 857    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 858        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 859        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 860        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 861
 862    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 863        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 864        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 865            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 866        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 867            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 868        else:
 869            persisted = ""
 870        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 871
 872    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 873        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 874
 875    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 876        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 877            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 878        else:
 879            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 880
 881        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 882
 883    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 884        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 885    ) -> str:
 886        this = ""
 887        if expression.this is not None:
 888            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 889            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 890
 891        start = expression.args.get("start")
 892        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 893        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 894        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 895        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 896        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 897        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 898        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 899        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 900        cycle_sql = ""
 901
 902        if cycle is not None:
 903            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 904            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 905
 906        sequence_opts = ""
 907        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 908            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 909            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 910
 911        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 912        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 913
 914        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 915
 916    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 917        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 918    ) -> str:
 919        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 920        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 921        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 922
 923    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 924        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 925    ) -> str:
 926        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 927
 928    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 929        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 930
 931    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 932        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 933
 934    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 935        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 936        if desc is not None:
 937            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 938        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 939
 940    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 941        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 942        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 943        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 944        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 945        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 946        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 947        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 948
 949    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 950        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 951
 952    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 953        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 954        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 955        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 956
 957        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 958
 959        properties_sql = ""
 960        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 961            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 962        ):
 963            properties_sql = self.sql(
 964                exp.Properties(
 965                    expressions=[
 966                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 967                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 968                    ]
 969                )
 970            )
 971
 972            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
 973                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
 974            elif not self.pretty:
 975                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
 976                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
 977
 978        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 979        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 980
 981        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 982        if expression_sql:
 983            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 984
 985            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 986                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 987                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 988                        exp.Properties(
 989                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 990                        ),
 991                        wrapped=False,
 992                    )
 993                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 994                else:
 995                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 996
 997        postindex_props_sql = ""
 998        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 999            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1000                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1001                wrapped=False,
1002                prefix=" ",
1003            )
1004
1005        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1006        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1007        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1008
1009        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1010        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1011
1012        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1013        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1014            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1015                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1016                sep=" ",
1017                prefix=" ",
1018                wrapped=False,
1019            )
1020
1021        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1022
1023        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1024        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1025            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1026                exp.Properties(
1027                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1028                ),
1029                sep=" ",
1030                prefix=" ",
1031                wrapped=False,
1032            )
1033
1034        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1035        no_schema_binding = (
1036            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1037        )
1038
1039        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1040        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1041
1042        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1043        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1044
1045    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1046        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1047        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1048        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1049        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1050        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1051        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1052        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1053        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1054        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1055        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1056
1057        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1058        if cache is None:
1059            cache_str = ""
1060        elif cache is True:
1061            cache_str = " CACHE"
1062        else:
1063            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1064
1065        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1066        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1067
1068        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1069
1070    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1071        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1072        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1073        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1074        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1075
1076    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1077        style = expression.args.get("style")
1078        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1079        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1080
1081    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1082        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1083        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1084
1085    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1086        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1087        if with_:
1088            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1089        return sql
1090
1091    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1092        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1093        recursive = (
1094            "RECURSIVE "
1095            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1096            else ""
1097        )
1098
1099        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1100
1101    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1102        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1103
1104        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1105        if materialized is False:
1106            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1107        elif materialized:
1108            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1109
1110        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1111
1112    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1113        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1114        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1115        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1116
1117        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1118            columns = ""
1119            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1120
1121        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1122            alias = self._next_name()
1123
1124        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1125
1126    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1127        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1128        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1129            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1130        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1131
1132    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1133        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1134        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1135            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1136        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1137
1138    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1139        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1140        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1141            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1142        return this
1143
1144    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1145        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1146        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1147
1148        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1149            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1150            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1151        else:
1152            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1153            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1154
1155        if escape:
1156            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1157            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1158        else:
1159            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1160            escape_sql = ""
1161
1162        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1163            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1164
1165        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1166
1167    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1168        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1169        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1170
1171    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1172        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1173        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1174        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1175        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1176
1177    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1178        type_value = expression.this
1179
1180        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1181            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1182        else:
1183            type_sql = (
1184                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1185                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1186                else type_value
1187            )
1188
1189        nested = ""
1190        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1191        values = ""
1192
1193        if interior:
1194            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1195                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1196                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1197                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1198                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1199                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1200            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1201                nested = f" {interior}"
1202            else:
1203                nested = f"({interior})"
1204
1205        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1206        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1207            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1208            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1209        ):
1210            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1211
1212        return type_sql
1213
1214    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1215        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1216        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1217        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1218        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1219
1220    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1221        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1222        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1223        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1224        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1225        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1226        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1227        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1228        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1229        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1230        if self.RETURNING_END:
1231            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1232        else:
1233            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1234        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1235
1236    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1237        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1238        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1239        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1240        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1241        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1242        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1243        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1244        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1245        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1246        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1247        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1248        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1249        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1250
1251    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1252        return self.set_operations(expression)
1253
1254    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1255        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1256
1257    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1258        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1259        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1260        count = expression.args.get("count")
1261        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1262        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1263            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1264        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1265        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1266
1267    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1268        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1269            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1270            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1271            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1272
1273        agg = expression.this
1274        agg_arg = agg.this
1275        cond = expression.expression.this
1276        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1277        return self.sql(agg)
1278
1279    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1280        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1281            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1282            return ""
1283
1284        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1285
1286    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1287        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1288        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1289        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1290        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1291        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1292        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1293        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1294        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1295        if include:
1296            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1297        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1298        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1299        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1300        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1301
1302        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"
1303
1304    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1305        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1306        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1307        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1308        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1309        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1310        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1311        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1312
1313        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1314
1315        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1316        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1317
1318    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1319        text = expression.name
1320        lower = text.lower()
1321        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1322        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1323        if (
1324            expression.quoted
1325            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1326            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1327            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1328        ):
1329            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1330        return text
1331
1332    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1333        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1334        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1335            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1336
1337        return text
1338
1339    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1340        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1341        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1342            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1343        return text
1344
1345    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1346        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1347        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1348        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1349        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1350        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1351
1352    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1353        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1354        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1355
1356    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1357        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1358
1359    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1360        root_properties = []
1361        with_properties = []
1362
1363        for p in expression.expressions:
1364            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1365            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1366                with_properties.append(p)
1367            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1368                root_properties.append(p)
1369
1370        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1371        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1372
1373        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1374            with_props = " " + with_props
1375
1376        return root_props + with_props
1377
1378    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1379        if properties.expressions:
1380            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1381        return ""
1382
1383    def properties(
1384        self,
1385        properties: exp.Properties,
1386        prefix: str = "",
1387        sep: str = ", ",
1388        suffix: str = "",
1389        wrapped: bool = True,
1390    ) -> str:
1391        if properties.expressions:
1392            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1393            if expressions:
1394                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1395                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1396        return ""
1397
1398    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1399        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1400
1401    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1402        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1403        for p in properties.expressions:
1404            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1405            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1406                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1407            else:
1408                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1409
1410        return properties_locs
1411
1412    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1413        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1414            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1415        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1416
1417    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1418        property_cls = expression.__class__
1419        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1420            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1421
1422        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1423        if not property_name:
1424            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1425
1426        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1427
1428    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1429        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1430            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1431            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1432
1433            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1434            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1435                like = f"({like})"
1436
1437            return like
1438
1439        if expression.expressions:
1440            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1441
1442        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1443        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1444
1445    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1446        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1447        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1448        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1449
1450    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1451        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1452        local = expression.args.get("local")
1453        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1454        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1455        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1456        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1457        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1458
1459    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1460        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1461        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1462        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1463
1464    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1465        if expression.args.get("default"):
1466            property = "DEFAULT"
1467        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1468            property = "ON"
1469        else:
1470            property = "OFF"
1471        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1472
1473    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1474        if expression.args.get("no"):
1475            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1476        if expression.args.get("default"):
1477            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1478
1479        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1480        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1481
1482    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1483        default = expression.args.get("default")
1484        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1485        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1486        if default or minimum or maximum:
1487            if default:
1488                prop = "DEFAULT"
1489            elif minimum:
1490                prop = "MINIMUM"
1491            else:
1492                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1493            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1494        units = expression.args.get("units")
1495        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1496        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1497
1498    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1499        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1500        always = expression.args.get("always")
1501        default = expression.args.get("default")
1502        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1503        never = expression.args.get("never")
1504
1505        if autotemp is not None:
1506            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1507        elif always:
1508            prop = "ALWAYS"
1509        elif default:
1510            prop = "DEFAULT"
1511        elif manual:
1512            prop = "MANUAL"
1513        elif never:
1514            prop = "NEVER"
1515        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1516
1517    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1518        no = expression.args.get("no")
1519        no = " NO" if no else ""
1520        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1521        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1522        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1523        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1524        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1525
1526    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1527        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1528            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1529        if expression.this:
1530            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1531            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1532            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1533
1534        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1535        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1536        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1537
1538    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1539        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1540
1541        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1542        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1543            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1544        else:
1545            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1546
1547        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1548
1549    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1550        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1551        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1552        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1553        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1554        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1555        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1556        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1557
1558    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1559        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1560        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1561        statistics_sql = ""
1562        if statistics is not None:
1563            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1564        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1565
1566    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1567        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1568        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1569        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1570        data_consistency = (
1571            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1572        )
1573        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1574        retention_period = (
1575            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1576        )
1577
1578        if this:
1579            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1580        else:
1581            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1582
1583        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1584
1585        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1586
1587    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1588        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1589        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1590
1591        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1592            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1593        else:
1594            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1595
1596        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1597        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1598        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1599        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1600        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1601        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1602        if is_function:
1603            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1604        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1605
1606        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1607        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1608        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1609        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1610        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1611        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1612        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1613        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1614
1615        if self.RETURNING_END:
1616            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1617        else:
1618            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1619
1620        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1621        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1622
1623    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1624        return self.set_operations(expression)
1625
1626    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1627        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1628
1629    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1630        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1631
1632    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1633        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1634        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1635        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1636        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1637        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1638
1639    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1640        return expression.name
1641
1642    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1643        return expression.name
1644
1645    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1646        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1647
1648        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1649        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1650
1651        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1652        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1653        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1654
1655        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1656        if expressions:
1657            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1658            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1659
1660        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1661
1662    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1663        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1664
1665    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1666        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1667        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1668        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1669        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1670        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1671        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1672        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1673        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1674        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1675        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1676        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1677        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1678        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1679
1680    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1681        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1682
1683    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1684        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1685        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1686        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1687        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1688
1689    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1690        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1691        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1692        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1693        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1694
1695    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1696        return ".".join(
1697            self.sql(part)
1698            for part in (
1699                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1700                expression.args.get("db"),
1701                expression.args.get("this"),
1702            )
1703            if part is not None
1704        )
1705
1706    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1707        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1708        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1709        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1710        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1711        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1712        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1713        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1714        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1715        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1716        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1717        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1718        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1719        joins = self.indent(
1720            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1721        )
1722        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1723
1724        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1725        if file_format:
1726            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1727            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1728            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1729
1730        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1731        if ordinality:
1732            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1733            alias = ""
1734
1735        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1736        if when:
1737            table = f"{table} {when}"
1738
1739        return f"{only}{table}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1740
1741    def tablesample_sql(
1742        self,
1743        expression: exp.TableSample,
1744        sep: str = " AS ",
1745        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1746    ) -> str:
1747        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1748            table = expression.this.copy()
1749            table.set("alias", None)
1750            this = self.sql(table)
1751            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1752        else:
1753            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1754            alias = ""
1755
1756        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1757        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1758        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1759        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1760        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1761        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1762        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1763        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1764        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1765
1766        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1767        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1768            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1769
1770        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1771        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1772            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1773
1774        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1775        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1776            expr = f"({expr})"
1777
1778        return (
1779            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1780        )
1781
1782    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1783        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1784
1785        if expression.this:
1786            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1787            if not expressions:
1788                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1789
1790            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1791            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1792            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1793            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1794            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1795
1796        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1797        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1798        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1799        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1800        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1801        if include_nulls is not None:
1802            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1803        else:
1804            nulls = ""
1805        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1806
1807    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1808        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1809        kind = expression.text("kind")
1810        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1811        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1812
1813    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1814        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1815
1816    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1817        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1818        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1819        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1820        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1821        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1822        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1823        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1824        if self.RETURNING_END:
1825            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1826        else:
1827            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1828        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1829        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1830
1831    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1832        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1833
1834        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1835        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1836            args = self.expressions(expression)
1837            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1838            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1839            values = (
1840                f"({values})"
1841                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1842                else values
1843            )
1844            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1845
1846        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1847        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1848        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1849
1850        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1851
1852        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1853            row = tup.expressions
1854
1855            if i == 0 and column_names:
1856                row = [
1857                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1858                ]
1859
1860            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1861
1862        if self.pretty:
1863            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1864            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1865            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1866            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1867            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1868
1869        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1870        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1871        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1872
1873    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1874        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1875
1876    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1877        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1878        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1879        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1880
1881    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1882        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1883
1884    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1885        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1886        if group_by_all is True:
1887            modifier = " ALL"
1888        elif group_by_all is False:
1889            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1890        else:
1891            modifier = ""
1892
1893        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1894
1895        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1896        grouping_sets = (
1897            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1898        )
1899
1900        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1901        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1902            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1903        else:
1904            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1905            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1906
1907        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1908        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1909            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1910        else:
1911            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1912            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1913
1914        groupings = csv(
1915            grouping_sets,
1916            cube_sql,
1917            rollup_sql,
1918            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1919            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1920        )
1921
1922        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1923            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1924
1925        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1926
1927    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1928        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1929        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1930
1931    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1932        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1933        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1934        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1935        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1936        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1937        return start + connect
1938
1939    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1940        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1941
1942    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1943        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1944            side = None
1945        else:
1946            side = expression.side
1947
1948        op_sql = " ".join(
1949            op
1950            for op in (
1951                expression.method,
1952                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1953                side,
1954                expression.kind,
1955                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1956            )
1957            if op
1958        )
1959        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1960        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1961        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1962        using = expression.args.get("using")
1963
1964        if not on_sql and using:
1965            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1966
1967        this = expression.this
1968        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1969
1970        if on_sql:
1971            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1972            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1973            if using:
1974                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1975            else:
1976                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1977        elif not op_sql:
1978            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1979                return f" {this_sql}"
1980
1981            return f", {this_sql}"
1982
1983        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
1984            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1985
1986        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
1987
1988    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1989        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1990        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1991        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1992
1993    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1994        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1995
1996        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1997        if cross_apply is True:
1998            op = "INNER JOIN "
1999        elif cross_apply is False:
2000            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2001        else:
2002            op = ""
2003
2004        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2005
2006    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2007        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2008
2009        if expression.args.get("view"):
2010            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2011            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2012            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2013            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2014            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2015            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2016
2017        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2018        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2019        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2020
2021    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2022        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2023
2024        args = [
2025            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2026            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2027            if e
2028        ]
2029
2030        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2031        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2032        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2033        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2034
2035        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2036
2037    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2038        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2039        value = expression.expression
2040        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2041        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2042        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2043        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2044
2045    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2046        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2047        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2048        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2049        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2050        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2051        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2052        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2053        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2054
2055    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2056        expressions = (
2057            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2058        )
2059        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2060        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2061
2062    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2063        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2064
2065    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2066        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2067            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2068            return ""
2069
2070        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2071        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2072        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2073        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2074
2075        if wait is not None:
2076            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2077                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2078            else:
2079                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2080
2081        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2082
2083    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2084        text = expression.this or ""
2085        if expression.is_string:
2086            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2087        return text
2088
2089    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2090        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2091            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2092            text = "".join(
2093                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2094            )
2095
2096        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2097            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2098        )
2099
2100    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2101        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2102        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2103        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2104        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2105        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2106        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2107        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2108        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2109        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2110        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2111        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2112
2113    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2114        return "NULL"
2115
2116    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2117        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2118
2119    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2120        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2121        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2122        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2123        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2124        interpolated_values = [
2125            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2126            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2127        ]
2128        interpolate = (
2129            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2130        )
2131        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2132
2133    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2134        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2135        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2136        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2137        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2138        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2139        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2140        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2141
2142    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2143        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2144
2145    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2146        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2147
2148    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2149        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2150
2151    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2152        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2153        asc = not desc
2154
2155        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2156        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2157        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2158        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2159        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2160
2161        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2162
2163        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2164        nulls_sort_change = ""
2165        if nulls_first and (
2166            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2167        ):
2168            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2169        elif (
2170            nulls_last
2171            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2172            and not nulls_are_last
2173        ):
2174            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2175
2176        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2177        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2178            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2179            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2180                self.unsupported(
2181                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2182                )
2183                nulls_sort_change = ""
2184            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2185                if expression.this.is_int:
2186                    self.unsupported(
2187                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2188                    )
2189                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2190                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2191                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2192                nulls_sort_change = ""
2193
2194        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2195        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2196
2197        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2198
2199    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2200        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2201        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2202
2203        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2204
2205        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2206
2207    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2208        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2209        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2210        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2211        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2212        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2213        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2214        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2215        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2216        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2217        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2218        definition_sqls = [
2219            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2220            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2221        ]
2222        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2223        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2224        body = "".join(
2225            (
2226                partition,
2227                order,
2228                measures,
2229                rows,
2230                after,
2231                pattern,
2232                define,
2233            )
2234        )
2235        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2236        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2237        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2238
2239    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2240        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2241
2242        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2243            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2244        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2245            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2246
2247        return csv(
2248            *sqls,
2249            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2250            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2251            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2252            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2253            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2254            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2255            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2256            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2257            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2258            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2259            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2260            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2261            self.options_modifier(expression),
2262            sep="",
2263        )
2264
2265    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2266        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2267        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2268
2269    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2270        return ""
2271
2272    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2273        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2274    ) -> t.List[str]:
2275        return [
2276            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2277            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2278        ]
2279
2280    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2281        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2282        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2283        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2284
2285    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2286        into = expression.args.get("into")
2287        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2288            into.pop()
2289
2290        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2291        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2292        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2293        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2294
2295        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2296        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2297            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2298            limit.pop()
2299        else:
2300            top = ""
2301
2302        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2303
2304        if kind:
2305            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2306                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2307            else:
2308                if kind == "STRUCT":
2309                    expressions = self.expressions(
2310                        sqls=[
2311                            self.sql(
2312                                exp.Struct(
2313                                    expressions=[
2314                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2315                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2316                                        else e
2317                                        for e in expression.expressions
2318                                    ]
2319                                )
2320                            )
2321                        ]
2322                    )
2323                kind = ""
2324
2325        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2326        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2327        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2328        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2329        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2330            expression,
2331            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2332            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2333            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2334        )
2335
2336        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2337
2338        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2339            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2340                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2341            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2342                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2343            else:
2344                table_kind = ""
2345            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2346
2347        return sql
2348
2349    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2350        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2351        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2352        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2353
2354    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2355        if expression.expressions:
2356            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2357        return ""
2358
2359    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2360        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2361        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2362        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2363        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2364        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2365        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2366        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2367
2368    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2369        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2370        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2371
2372    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2373        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2374        kind = expression.text("kind")
2375        if kind:
2376            kind = f"{kind}."
2377        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2378
2379    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2380        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2381
2382    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2383        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2384        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2385
2386        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2387        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2388
2389        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2390        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2391
2392    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2393        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2394        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2395
2396    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2397        if not self.OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS:
2398            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2399            order = expression.args.get("order")
2400
2401            if limit or order:
2402                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2403
2404                if limit:
2405                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2406                if order:
2407                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2408                return self.sql(select)
2409
2410        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2411        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2412
2413        while stack:
2414            node = stack.pop()
2415
2416            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
2417                stack.append(node.expression)
2418                stack.append(
2419                    self.maybe_comment(
2420                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2421                        comments=node.comments,
2422                        separated=True,
2423                    )
2424                )
2425                stack.append(node.this)
2426            else:
2427                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2428
2429        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2430        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2431        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2432
2433    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2434        return self.set_operations(expression)
2435
2436    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2437        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2438        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2439        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2440        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2441
2442    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2443        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2444
2445        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2446        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2447
2448        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2449            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2450                alias.append("columns", offset)
2451
2452        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2453            columns = alias.columns
2454            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2455        else:
2456            alias = self.sql(alias)
2457
2458        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2459        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2460            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2461        else:
2462            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2463                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2464            elif offset:
2465                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2466            else:
2467                suffix = alias
2468
2469        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2470
2471    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2472        return ""
2473
2474    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2475        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2476        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2477
2478    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2479        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2480        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2481        order = expression.args.get("order")
2482        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2483        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2484        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2485        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2486
2487        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2488
2489        first = expression.args.get("first")
2490        if first is None:
2491            first = ""
2492        else:
2493            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2494
2495        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2496            return f"{this} {alias}"
2497
2498        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2499        return f"{this} ({args})"
2500
2501    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2502        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2503        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2504
2505    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2506        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2507        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2508        end = (
2509            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2510            or "CURRENT ROW"
2511        )
2512        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2513
2514    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2515        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2516        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2517        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2518
2519    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2520        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2521        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2522        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2523        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2524
2525    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2526        return apply_index_offset(
2527            expression.this,
2528            expression.expressions,
2529            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2530        )
2531
2532    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2533        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2534        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2535        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2536
2537    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2538        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2539
2540    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2541        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2542        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2543            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2544                this = self.wrap(this)
2545            return f"ANY{this}"
2546        return f"ANY {this}"
2547
2548    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2549        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2550
2551    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2552        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2553        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2554
2555        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2556            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2557            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2558
2559        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2560
2561        if default:
2562            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2563
2564        statements.append("END")
2565
2566        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2567            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2568
2569        return " ".join(statements)
2570
2571    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2572        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2573        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2574        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2575
2576    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2577        order = expression.args.get("order")
2578        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2579        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2580
2581    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2582        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2583        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2584        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2585
2586    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2587        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2588
2589        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2590            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2591        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2592            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2593        else:
2594            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2595
2596    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2597        args = expression.expressions
2598        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2599            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2600
2601        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2602            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2603
2604        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2605            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2606
2607        return args
2608
2609    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2610        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2611
2612        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2613        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2614            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2615
2616        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2617
2618    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2619        return self.func(
2620            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2621        )
2622
2623    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2624        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2625        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2626
2627    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2628        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2629        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2630        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2631        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2632        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2633        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2634        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2635        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2636
2637    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2638        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2639        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2640        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2641        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2642
2643    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2644        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2645
2646    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2647        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2648        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2649        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2650
2651    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2652        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2653
2654    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2655        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2656        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2657
2658    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2659        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2660            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2661            if not callable(transform):
2662                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2663                return ""
2664
2665            return transform(self, expression)
2666
2667        if isinstance(expression, int):
2668            return str(expression)
2669
2670        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2671            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2672            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2673        else:
2674            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2675            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2676
2677        return escaped
2678
2679    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2680        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2681
2682    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2683        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2684        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2685
2686        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2687        if unique_keys is not None:
2688            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2689        else:
2690            unique_keys = ""
2691
2692        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2693        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2694        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2695        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2696
2697        return self.func(
2698            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2699            *expression.expressions,
2700            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2701        )
2702
2703    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2704        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2705
2706    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2707        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2708        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2709        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2710        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2711        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2712        return self.func(
2713            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2714        )
2715
2716    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2717        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2718        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2719        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2720        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2721        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2722        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2723        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2724        return self.func(
2725            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2726            this,
2727            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2728        )
2729
2730    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2731        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2732        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2733        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2734
2735        if nested_schema:
2736            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2737
2738        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2739        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2740        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2741        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2742
2743    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2744        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2745
2746    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2747        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2748        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2749        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2750        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2751        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2752        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2753        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2754        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2755        return self.func(
2756            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2757        )
2758
2759    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2760        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2761        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2762        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2763        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2764        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2765        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2766
2767    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2768        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2769        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2770        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2771        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2772        with_ = (
2773            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2774            if expressions
2775            else ""
2776        )
2777        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2778
2779    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2780        query = expression.args.get("query")
2781        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2782        field = expression.args.get("field")
2783        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2784
2785        if query:
2786            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2787        elif unnest:
2788            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2789        elif field:
2790            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2791        else:
2792            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2793
2794        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2795
2796    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2797        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2798
2799    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2800        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2801        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2802            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2803        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2804
2805        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2806            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2807            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2808
2809        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2810        if this:
2811            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2812            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2813
2814        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2815
2816    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2817        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2818
2819    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2820        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2821        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2822        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2823        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2824        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2825        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2826
2827    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2828        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2829
2830    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2831        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2832        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2833
2834    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2835        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2836        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2837        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2838        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2839
2840    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2841        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2842
2843    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2844        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2845        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2846        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2847
2848    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2849        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2850        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2851
2852        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2853            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2854        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2855            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2856
2857        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2858
2859    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2860        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2861
2862    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2863        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2864        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2865        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2866
2867    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2868        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2869        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2870        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2871
2872    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2873        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2874        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2875        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2876
2877    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2878        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2879
2880    def and_sql(
2881        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2882    ) -> str:
2883        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2884
2885    def or_sql(
2886        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2887    ) -> str:
2888        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2889
2890    def xor_sql(
2891        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2892    ) -> str:
2893        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2894
2895    def connector_sql(
2896        self,
2897        expression: exp.Connector,
2898        op: str,
2899        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2900    ) -> str:
2901        if stack is not None:
2902            if expression.expressions:
2903                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2904            else:
2905                stack.append(expression.right)
2906                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2907                    for comment in expression.comments:
2908                        if comment:
2909                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2910                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2911            return op
2912
2913        stack = [expression]
2914        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2915        ops = set()
2916
2917        while stack:
2918            node = stack.pop()
2919            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2920                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2921            else:
2922                sql = self.sql(node)
2923                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2924                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2925                else:
2926                    sqls.append(sql)
2927
2928        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2929        return sep.join(sqls)
2930
2931    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2932        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2933
2934    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2935        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2936
2937    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2938        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2939
2940    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2941        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2942
2943    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2944        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2945
2946    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2947        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2948
2949    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2950        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2951        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2952        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2953        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2954        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2955        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2956        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
2957
2958    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2959        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2960        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2961
2962    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2963        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
2964
2965    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2966        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2967            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2968        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2969
2970    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2971        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2972
2973    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2974        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2975        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2976        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
2977        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2978        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2979        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2980
2981    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2982        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2983        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2984        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2985        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2986        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2987        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2988        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2989        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2990        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2991
2992    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2993        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2994        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2995        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2996        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2997
2998        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2999            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3000
3001        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3002
3003    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3004        return "BEGIN"
3005
3006    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3007        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3008        if chain is not None:
3009            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3010
3011        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3012
3013    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3014        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3015        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3016        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3017
3018    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3019        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3020
3021        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3022        if dtype:
3023            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3024            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3025            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3026            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3027            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3028
3029        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3030        if default:
3031            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3032
3033        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3034        if comment:
3035            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3036
3037        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3038        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3039
3040        if not drop and not allow_null:
3041            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3042
3043        if allow_null is not None:
3044            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3045            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3046
3047        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3048
3049    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3050        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3051        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3052            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3053        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3054
3055    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3056        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3057        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3058        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3059        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3060        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3061
3062    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3063        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3064            # Remove db from tables
3065            expression = expression.transform(
3066                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3067            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3068        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3069        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3070
3071    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3072        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3073        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3074        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3075        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3076
3077    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3078        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3079        return f"SET {exprs}"
3080
3081    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3082        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3083
3084        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3085            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3086        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3087            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3088        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3089            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3090        else:
3091            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3092
3093        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3094        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3095        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3096        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3097        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3098        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3099        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
3100
3101    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3102        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3103            return self.expressions(
3104                expression,
3105                key="actions",
3106                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3107            )
3108        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3109
3110    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3111        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3112        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3113        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3114
3115    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3116        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3117
3118    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3119        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3120
3121        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3122            case = exp.case()
3123            for arg in expression.expressions:
3124                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3125            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3126
3127        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3128
3129        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3130        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3131        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3132
3133    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3134        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3135
3136    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3137        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3138
3139    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3140        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3141        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3142        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3143        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3144
3145    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3146        return self.sql(
3147            exp.Cast(
3148                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3149                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3150            )
3151        )
3152
3153    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3154        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3155            return self.func(
3156                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3157            )
3158        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3159
3160    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3161        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3162
3163        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3164            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3165
3166        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3167            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3168                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3169
3170        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3171            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3172                return self.sql(
3173                    exp.cast(
3174                        l / r,
3175                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3176                    )
3177                )
3178
3179        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3180
3181    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3182        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3183
3184    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3185        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3186
3187    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3188        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3189
3190    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3191        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3192
3193    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3194        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3195
3196    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3197        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3198
3199    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3200        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3201
3202    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3203        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3204
3205    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3206        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3207
3208    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3209        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3210
3211    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3212        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3213
3214    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3215        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3216            return self.sql(
3217                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3218            )
3219        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3220
3221    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3222        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3223
3224    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3225        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3226
3227    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3228        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3229
3230    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3231        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3232
3233    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3234        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3235
3236    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3237        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3238
3239    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3240        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3241
3242    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3243        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3244
3245    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3246        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3247
3248    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3249        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3250
3251    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3252        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3253
3254    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3255        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3256
3257    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3258        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3259
3260    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3261        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3262            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3263            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3264
3265        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3266
3267    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3268        this = expression.this
3269        expr = expression.expression
3270
3271        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3272            this, expr = expr, this
3273        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3274            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3275                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3276
3277            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3278
3279        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3280
3281    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3282        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3283        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3284        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3285        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3286        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3287
3288    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3289        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3290        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3291
3292    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3293        args = []
3294
3295        for key in expression.arg_types:
3296            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3297
3298            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3299                for value in arg_value:
3300                    args.append(value)
3301            elif arg_value is not None:
3302                args.append(arg_value)
3303
3304        if self.normalize_functions:
3305            name = expression.sql_name()
3306        else:
3307            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3308
3309        return self.func(name, *args)
3310
3311    def func(
3312        self,
3313        name: str,
3314        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3315        prefix: str = "(",
3316        suffix: str = ")",
3317    ) -> str:
3318        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3319
3320    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3321        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3322        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3323            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3324        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3325
3326    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3327        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3328
3329    def format_time(
3330        self,
3331        expression: exp.Expression,
3332        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3333        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3334    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3335        return format_time(
3336            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3337            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3338            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3339        )
3340
3341    def expressions(
3342        self,
3343        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3344        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3345        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3346        flat: bool = False,
3347        indent: bool = True,
3348        skip_first: bool = False,
3349        skip_last: bool = False,
3350        sep: str = ", ",
3351        prefix: str = "",
3352        dynamic: bool = False,
3353        new_line: bool = False,
3354    ) -> str:
3355        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3356
3357        if not expressions:
3358            return ""
3359
3360        if flat:
3361            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3362
3363        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3364
3365        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3366        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
3367            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3368
3369        result_sqls = []
3370        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3371            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3372            if not sql:
3373                continue
3374
3375            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3376
3377            if self.pretty:
3378                if self.leading_comma:
3379                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3380                else:
3381                    result_sqls.append(
3382                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3383                    )
3384            else:
3385                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3386
3387        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3388            if new_line:
3389                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3390                result_sqls.append("")
3391            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
3392        else:
3393            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3394        return (
3395            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3396            if indent
3397            else result_sql
3398        )
3399
3400    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3401        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3402        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3403        if flat:
3404            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3405        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3406
3407    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3408        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3409        if not property_name:
3410            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3411        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3412
3413    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3414        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3415
3416    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3417        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3418
3419    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3420        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3421        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3422        expressions = (
3423            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3424        )
3425        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3426
3427    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3428        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3429        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3430        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3431
3432    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3433        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3434
3435    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3436        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3437        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3438        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3439        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3440
3441        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3442        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3443            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3444            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3445            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3446            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3447        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3448            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3449                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3450            else:
3451                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3452        else:
3453            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3454        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3455
3456    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3457        table = expression.this
3458        table_alias = ""
3459
3460        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3461        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3462            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3463            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3464
3465        this = self.sql(table)
3466        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3467        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3468        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3469        sep = self.sep()
3470
3471        return self.prepend_ctes(
3472            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3473        )
3474
3475    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3476        if expression.args.get("format"):
3477            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3478
3479        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3480
3481    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3482        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3483            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3484            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3485
3486        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3487        if not fmt:
3488            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3489            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3490
3491        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3492
3493    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3494        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3495        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3496        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3497        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3498        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3499
3500    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3501        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3502        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3503        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3504        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3505
3506    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3507        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3508
3509    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3510        return ""
3511
3512    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3513        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3514        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3515        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3516        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3517        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3518
3519    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3520        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3521        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3522
3523        if having:
3524            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3525
3526        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3527
3528    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3529        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3530        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3531        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3532        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3533        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3534        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3535        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3536        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3537        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3538        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3539        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3540        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3541        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3542
3543    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3544        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3545        if key_block_size:
3546            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3547
3548        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3549        if using:
3550            return f"USING {using}"
3551
3552        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3553        if parser:
3554            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3555
3556        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3557        if comment:
3558            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3559
3560        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3561        if visible is not None:
3562            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3563
3564        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3565        if engine_attr:
3566            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3567
3568        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3569        if secondary_engine_attr:
3570            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3571
3572        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3573        return ""
3574
3575    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3576        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3577        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3578
3579    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3580        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3581        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3582        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3583        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3584        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3585        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3586        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3587        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3588        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3589        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3590        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3591
3592    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3593        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3594            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3595
3596        case = exp.Case().when(
3597            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3598            expression.args["true"],
3599            copy=False,
3600        )
3601        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3602        if else_cond:
3603            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3604
3605        return self.sql(case)
3606
3607    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3608        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3609        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3610        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3611        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3612        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3613        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3614
3615    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3616        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3617
3618    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3619        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3620
3621    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3622        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3623        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3624        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3625        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3626        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3627        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3628
3629    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3630        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3631        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3632        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3633
3634    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3635        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3636        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3637        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3638
3639    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3640        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3641
3642    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3643        arg = expression.this
3644        if not arg.type:
3645            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3646
3647            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3648
3649        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3650            return self.sql(arg)
3651
3652        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3653        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3654
3655    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3656        this = expression.this
3657        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3658            return self.sql(this)
3659
3660        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3661
3662    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3663        this = expression.this
3664        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3665            return self.sql(this)
3666
3667        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3668
3669    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3670        this = expression.this
3671        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3672
3673        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3674            return self.sql(
3675                exp.cast(
3676                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3677                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3678                )
3679            )
3680
3681        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3682            return self.sql(this)
3683
3684        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3685
3686    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3687        return self.sql(
3688            exp.func(
3689                "DATEDIFF",
3690                expression.this,
3691                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3692                "day",
3693            )
3694        )
3695
3696    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3697        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3698            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3699
3700        unit = expression.text("unit")
3701        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3702            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3703
3704        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3705
3706    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3707        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3708
3709        return self.func(
3710            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3711        )
3712
3713    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3714        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3715            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3716            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3717            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3718            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3719
3720        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3721
3722        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3723        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3724            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3725
3726        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3727
3728    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3729        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3730        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3731
3732    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3733        expression.set(
3734            "expressions",
3735            [
3736                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3737                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3738                else e
3739                for e in expression.expressions
3740            ],
3741        )
3742
3743        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3744
3745    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3746        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3747        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3748
3749        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3750
3751    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3752        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3753        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3754
3755        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3756
3757        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3758        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3759
3760        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3761        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3762
3763        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3764        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3765
3766        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3767        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3768
3769        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3770
3771    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3772    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3773    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3774        to = expression.this
3775        value = expression.expression
3776        style = expression.args.get("style")
3777        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3778        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3779
3780        if not to or not value:
3781            return ""
3782
3783        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3784        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3785            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3786
3787        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3788        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3789
3790        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3791        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3792            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3793
3794            style_value = style.name
3795            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3796            if not converted_style:
3797                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3798
3799            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3800
3801            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3802                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3803            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3804                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3805            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3806                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3807            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3808                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3809
3810        if not transformed:
3811            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3812
3813        return self.sql(transformed)
3814
3815    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3816        this = expression.this
3817        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3818            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3819            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3820
3821        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3822            return f".{this}"
3823
3824        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3825        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3826
3827    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3828        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3829        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3830
3831    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3832        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3833            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3834
3835            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3836
3837        return expression
3838
3839    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3840        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3841            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3842            mods = sorted(
3843                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3844                key=lambda x: 0
3845                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3846                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3847            )
3848
3849            if mods:
3850                mod = mods[0]
3851                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3852                this.meta["inline"] = True
3853                mod.this.replace(this)
3854                return self.sql(expression.this)
3855
3856            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3857
3858            if agg_func:
3859                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3860
3861        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3862
3863    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
3864        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
3865        if self.pretty:
3866            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
3867        return string
3868
3869    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3870        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3871
3872        if expression.expressions:
3873            upper = option.upper()
3874
3875            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
3876            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
3877
3878            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
3879            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
3880            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
3881            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
3882
3883        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3884
3885        if not value:
3886            return option
3887
3888        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3889
3890        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
3891
3892    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3893        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3894        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3895            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3896            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3897            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3898        else:
3899            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3900            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3901            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
3902
3903        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3904        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
3905
3906        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3907        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3908
3909        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3910        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3911
3912        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3913        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3914
3915        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
3916
3917    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3918        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3919        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3920
3921        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3922        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
3923        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
3924        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3925
3926        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3927        params = self.expressions(
3928            expression,
3929            key="params",
3930            sep=sep,
3931            new_line=True,
3932            skip_last=True,
3933            skip_first=True,
3934            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
3935        )
3936
3937        if params:
3938            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
3939                params = f" WITH ({params})"
3940            elif not self.pretty:
3941                params = f" {params}"
3942
3943        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
3944
3945    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
3946        return ""
3947
3948    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
3949        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
3950        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
3951        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
3952        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
3953        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
3954
3955        if filter_col or retention_period:
3956            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
3957
3958        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
3959
3960    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
3961        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
3962    ) -> str:
3963        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3964        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3965        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3966        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
3967
3968    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
3969        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3970        this = f"TABLE {this}"
3971        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile('\\\\(\\d+)')
class Generator:
  37class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  38    """
  39    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  40
  41    Args:
  42        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  43            Default: False.
  44        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  45            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  46            True or 'always': Always quote.
  47            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  48        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  49            Default: False.
  50        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  51            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  52            Default: 2.
  53        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  54            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  55            Default: 2.
  56        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  57            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  58            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  59            False: Disables function name normalization.
  60        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  61            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  62        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  63            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  64            Default: 3
  65        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  66            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  67            Default: False
  68        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  69            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  70            line length.
  71            Default: 80
  72        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  73            Default: True
  74    """
  75
  76    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  77        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  78        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
  79        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
  80        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  82        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  83        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  84        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  85        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  86        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  87        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  88        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  89        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  92        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  95        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  96        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
  97        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
  98        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  99        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 100        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 101        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 102        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 103        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 104        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 105        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 106        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 107        exp.JSONExtract: lambda self, e: self.func(
 108            "JSON_EXTRACT", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 109        ),
 110        exp.JSONExtractScalar: lambda self, e: self.func(
 111            "JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 112        ),
 113        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 114        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 115        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 116        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 117        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 118        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 119        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 120        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 121        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 122        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 123        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 128        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 130        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 131        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 132            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 133        ),
 134        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 135        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 136        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 137        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 138        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 139        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 140        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 141        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 142        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 143        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 144        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 145        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 146        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 147        exp.Timestamp: lambda self, e: self.func("TIMESTAMP", e.this, e.expression),
 148        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 149        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 150        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 151        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 152        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 153        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 154        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 155        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 156        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 157        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 158        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 159    }
 160
 161    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 162    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 163    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 164
 165    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 166    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 167    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 168
 169    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 170    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 171
 172    # Always do union distinct or union all
 173    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 174
 175    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 176    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 177
 178    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 179    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 180
 181    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 182    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 183
 184    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 185    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 186
 187    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 188    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 189
 190    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 191    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 192
 193    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 194    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 195
 196    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 197    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 198
 199    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 200    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 201
 202    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 203    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 204
 205    # Whether join hints should be generated
 206    JOIN_HINTS = True
 207
 208    # Whether table hints should be generated
 209    TABLE_HINTS = True
 210
 211    # Whether query hints should be generated
 212    QUERY_HINTS = True
 213
 214    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 215    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 216
 217    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 218    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 219
 220    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 221    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 222
 223    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 224    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 225
 226    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 227    RETURNING_END = True
 228
 229    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 230    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 231
 232    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 233    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 234
 235    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 236    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 237
 238    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 239    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 240
 241    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 242    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 243    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 244    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 245
 246    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 247    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 248
 249    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 250    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 251
 252    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 253    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 254
 255    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 256    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 257
 258    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 259    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 260
 261    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 262    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 263
 264    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 265    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 266
 267    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 268    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 269
 270    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 271    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 272
 273    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 274    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 275
 276    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 277    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 278
 279    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 280    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 281
 282    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 283    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 284
 285    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 286    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 287
 288    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 289    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 290
 291    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 292    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 293
 294    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 295    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 296
 297    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 298    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 299
 300    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 301    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 302
 303    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 304    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 305
 306    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 307    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 308
 309    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 310    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 311
 312    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 313    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 314
 315    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 316    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 317
 318    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 319    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 320
 321    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 322    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 323    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 324
 325    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 326    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 327
 328    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 329    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 330
 331    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 332    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 333
 334    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 335    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 336
 337    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 338    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 339
 340    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 341    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 342
 343    # Whether or not union modifiers apply to the outer union or select.
 344    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 345    # True means limit 1 happens after the union, False means it it happens on y.
 346    OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS = True
 347
 348    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 349    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 350
 351    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 352    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 353
 354    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 355    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 356
 357    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 358    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 359
 360    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 361    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 362
 363    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 364    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 365
 366    # The HEX function name
 367    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 368
 369    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 370    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 371
 372    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 373        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 374        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 375        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 376        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 377        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 378        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 379        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 380        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 381        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 382        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 383    }
 384
 385    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 386        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 387        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 388        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 389        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 390        "DAYS": "DAY",
 391        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 392        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 393        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 394        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 395    }
 396
 397    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 398        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 399        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 400        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 401        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 402        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 403            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 404            if e.args.get("windows")
 405            else ""
 406        ),
 407    }
 408
 409    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 410
 411    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 412
 413    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 414    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 415
 416    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 417        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 418        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 419        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 420        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 421        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 422        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 423        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 424        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 425        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 426        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 427        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 428        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 429        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 430        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 431        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 432        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 433        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 434        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 435        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 436        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 437        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 438        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 439        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 440        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 441        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 442        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 443        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 444        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 445        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 446        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 447        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 448        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 449        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 450        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 451        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 452        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 453        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 454        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 455        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 456        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 457        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 458        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 459        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 460        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 461        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 462        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 463        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 464        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 465        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 466        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 467        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 468        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 469        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 470        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 471        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 472        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 473        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 474        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 475        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 476        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 477        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 478        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 479        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 480        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 481        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 482        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 483        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 484        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 485        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 486        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 487        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 488        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 489        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 490        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 491        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 492        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 493        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 494        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 495        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 496    }
 497
 498    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 499    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 500
 501    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 502    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 503        exp.Create,
 504        exp.Delete,
 505        exp.Drop,
 506        exp.From,
 507        exp.Insert,
 508        exp.Join,
 509        exp.Select,
 510        exp.Union,
 511        exp.Update,
 512        exp.Where,
 513        exp.With,
 514    )
 515
 516    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 517    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 518        exp.Binary,
 519        exp.Union,
 520    )
 521
 522    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 523    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 524        exp.Column,
 525        exp.Literal,
 526        exp.Neg,
 527        exp.Paren,
 528    )
 529
 530    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 531        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 532        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 533        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 534        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 535    }
 536
 537    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 538    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 539
 540    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 541
 542    __slots__ = (
 543        "pretty",
 544        "identify",
 545        "normalize",
 546        "pad",
 547        "_indent",
 548        "normalize_functions",
 549        "unsupported_level",
 550        "max_unsupported",
 551        "leading_comma",
 552        "max_text_width",
 553        "comments",
 554        "dialect",
 555        "unsupported_messages",
 556        "_escaped_quote_end",
 557        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 558        "_next_name",
 559    )
 560
 561    def __init__(
 562        self,
 563        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 564        identify: str | bool = False,
 565        normalize: bool = False,
 566        pad: int = 2,
 567        indent: int = 2,
 568        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 569        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 570        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 571        leading_comma: bool = False,
 572        max_text_width: int = 80,
 573        comments: bool = True,
 574        dialect: DialectType = None,
 575    ):
 576        import sqlglot
 577        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 578
 579        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 580        self.identify = identify
 581        self.normalize = normalize
 582        self.pad = pad
 583        self._indent = indent
 584        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 585        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 586        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 587        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 588        self.comments = comments
 589        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 590
 591        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 592        self.normalize_functions = (
 593            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 594        )
 595
 596        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 597        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 598            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 599        )
 600        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 601            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 602        )
 603
 604        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 605
 606    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 607        """
 608        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 609
 610        Args:
 611            expression: The syntax tree.
 612            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 613                it is safer to copy.
 614
 615        Returns:
 616            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 617        """
 618        if copy:
 619            expression = expression.copy()
 620
 621        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 622
 623        self.unsupported_messages = []
 624        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 625
 626        if self.pretty:
 627            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 628
 629        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 630            return sql
 631
 632        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 633            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 634                logger.warning(msg)
 635        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 636            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 637
 638        return sql
 639
 640    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 641        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 642        if (
 643            not expression.parent
 644            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 645            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 646        ):
 647            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 648
 649            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 650
 651        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 652            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 653
 654            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 655
 656        return expression
 657
 658    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 659        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 660            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 661        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 662
 663    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 664        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 665
 666    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 667        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 668
 669    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 670        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 671        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 672        return comment
 673
 674    def maybe_comment(
 675        self,
 676        sql: str,
 677        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 678        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 679        separated: bool = False,
 680    ) -> str:
 681        comments = (
 682            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 683            if self.comments
 684            else None
 685        )
 686
 687        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 688            return sql
 689
 690        comments_sql = " ".join(
 691            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 692        )
 693
 694        if not comments_sql:
 695            return sql
 696
 697        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 698
 699        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 700            return (
 701                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 702                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 703                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 704            )
 705
 706        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 707
 708    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 709        this_sql = (
 710            self.sql(expression)
 711            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 712            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 713        )
 714        if not this_sql:
 715            return "()"
 716
 717        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 718        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 719
 720    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 721        original = self.identify
 722        self.identify = False
 723        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 724        self.identify = original
 725        return result
 726
 727    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 728        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 729            return name.upper()
 730        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 731            return name.lower()
 732        return name
 733
 734    def indent(
 735        self,
 736        sql: str,
 737        level: int = 0,
 738        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 739        skip_first: bool = False,
 740        skip_last: bool = False,
 741    ) -> str:
 742        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 743            return sql
 744
 745        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 746        lines = sql.split("\n")
 747
 748        return "\n".join(
 749            (
 750                line
 751                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 752                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 753            )
 754            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 755        )
 756
 757    def sql(
 758        self,
 759        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 760        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 761        comment: bool = True,
 762    ) -> str:
 763        if not expression:
 764            return ""
 765
 766        if isinstance(expression, str):
 767            return expression
 768
 769        if key:
 770            value = expression.args.get(key)
 771            if value:
 772                return self.sql(value)
 773            return ""
 774
 775        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 776
 777        if callable(transform):
 778            sql = transform(self, expression)
 779        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 780            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 781
 782            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 783                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 784            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 785                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 786            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 787                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 788            else:
 789                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 790        else:
 791            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 792
 793        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 794
 795    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 796        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 797        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 798        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 799
 800    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 801        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 802        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 803        options = expression.args.get("options")
 804        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 805        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 806        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 807        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 808        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 809
 810    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 811        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 812            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 813        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 814        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 815
 816    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 817        return ".".join(
 818            self.sql(part)
 819            for part in (
 820                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 821                expression.args.get("db"),
 822                expression.args.get("table"),
 823                expression.args.get("this"),
 824            )
 825            if part
 826        )
 827
 828    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 829        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 830
 831        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 832            join_mark = ""
 833            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 834
 835        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 836
 837    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 838        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 839        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 840        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 841        return f"{position}{this}"
 842
 843    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 844        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 845        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 846        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 847        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 848        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 849        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 850        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 851        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 852
 853        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 854            kind = ""
 855
 856        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 857
 858    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 859        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 860        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 861        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 862
 863    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 864        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 865        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 866            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 867        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 868            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 869        else:
 870            persisted = ""
 871        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 872
 873    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 874        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 875
 876    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 877        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 878            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 879        else:
 880            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 881
 882        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 883
 884    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 885        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 886    ) -> str:
 887        this = ""
 888        if expression.this is not None:
 889            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 890            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 891
 892        start = expression.args.get("start")
 893        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 894        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 895        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 896        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 897        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 898        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 899        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 900        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 901        cycle_sql = ""
 902
 903        if cycle is not None:
 904            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 905            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 906
 907        sequence_opts = ""
 908        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 909            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 910            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 911
 912        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 913        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 914
 915        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 916
 917    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 918        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 919    ) -> str:
 920        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 921        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 922        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 923
 924    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 925        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 926    ) -> str:
 927        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 928
 929    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 930        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 931
 932    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 933        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 934
 935    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 936        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 937        if desc is not None:
 938            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 939        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 940
 941    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 942        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 943        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 944        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 945        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 946        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 947        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 948        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 949
 950    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 951        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 952
 953    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 954        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 955        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 956        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 957
 958        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 959
 960        properties_sql = ""
 961        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 962            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 963        ):
 964            properties_sql = self.sql(
 965                exp.Properties(
 966                    expressions=[
 967                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 968                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 969                    ]
 970                )
 971            )
 972
 973            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
 974                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
 975            elif not self.pretty:
 976                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
 977                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
 978
 979        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 980        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 981
 982        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 983        if expression_sql:
 984            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 985
 986            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 987                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 988                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 989                        exp.Properties(
 990                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 991                        ),
 992                        wrapped=False,
 993                    )
 994                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 995                else:
 996                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 997
 998        postindex_props_sql = ""
 999        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1000            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1001                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1002                wrapped=False,
1003                prefix=" ",
1004            )
1005
1006        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1007        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1008        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1009
1010        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1011        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1012
1013        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1014        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1015            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1016                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1017                sep=" ",
1018                prefix=" ",
1019                wrapped=False,
1020            )
1021
1022        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1023
1024        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1025        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1026            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1027                exp.Properties(
1028                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1029                ),
1030                sep=" ",
1031                prefix=" ",
1032                wrapped=False,
1033            )
1034
1035        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1036        no_schema_binding = (
1037            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1038        )
1039
1040        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1041        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1042
1043        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1044        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1045
1046    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1047        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1048        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1049        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1050        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1051        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1052        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1053        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1054        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1055        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1056        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1057
1058        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1059        if cache is None:
1060            cache_str = ""
1061        elif cache is True:
1062            cache_str = " CACHE"
1063        else:
1064            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1065
1066        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1067        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1068
1069        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1070
1071    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1072        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1073        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1074        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1075        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1076
1077    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1078        style = expression.args.get("style")
1079        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1080        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1081
1082    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1083        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1084        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1085
1086    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1087        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1088        if with_:
1089            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1090        return sql
1091
1092    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1093        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1094        recursive = (
1095            "RECURSIVE "
1096            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1097            else ""
1098        )
1099
1100        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1101
1102    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1103        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1104
1105        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1106        if materialized is False:
1107            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1108        elif materialized:
1109            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1110
1111        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1112
1113    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1114        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1115        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1116        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1117
1118        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1119            columns = ""
1120            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1121
1122        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1123            alias = self._next_name()
1124
1125        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1126
1127    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1128        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1129        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1130            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1131        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1132
1133    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1134        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1135        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1136            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1137        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1138
1139    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1140        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1141        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1142            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1143        return this
1144
1145    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1146        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1147        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1148
1149        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1150            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1151            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1152        else:
1153            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1154            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1155
1156        if escape:
1157            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1158            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1159        else:
1160            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1161            escape_sql = ""
1162
1163        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1164            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1165
1166        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1167
1168    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1169        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1170        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1171
1172    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1173        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1174        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1175        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1176        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1177
1178    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1179        type_value = expression.this
1180
1181        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1182            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1183        else:
1184            type_sql = (
1185                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1186                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1187                else type_value
1188            )
1189
1190        nested = ""
1191        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1192        values = ""
1193
1194        if interior:
1195            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1196                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1197                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1198                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1199                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1200                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1201            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1202                nested = f" {interior}"
1203            else:
1204                nested = f"({interior})"
1205
1206        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1207        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1208            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1209            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1210        ):
1211            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1212
1213        return type_sql
1214
1215    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1216        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1217        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1218        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1219        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1220
1221    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1222        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1223        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1224        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1225        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1226        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1227        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1228        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1229        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1230        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1231        if self.RETURNING_END:
1232            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1233        else:
1234            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1235        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1236
1237    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1238        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1239        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1240        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1241        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1242        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1243        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1244        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1245        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1246        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1247        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1248        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1249        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1250        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1251
1252    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1253        return self.set_operations(expression)
1254
1255    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1256        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1257
1258    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1259        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1260        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1261        count = expression.args.get("count")
1262        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1263        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1264            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1265        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1266        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1267
1268    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1269        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1270            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1271            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1272            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1273
1274        agg = expression.this
1275        agg_arg = agg.this
1276        cond = expression.expression.this
1277        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1278        return self.sql(agg)
1279
1280    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1281        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1282            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1283            return ""
1284
1285        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1286
1287    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1288        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1289        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1290        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1291        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1292        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1293        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1294        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1295        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1296        if include:
1297            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1298        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1299        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1300        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1301        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1302
1303        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"
1304
1305    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1306        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1307        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1308        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1309        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1310        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1311        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1312        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1313
1314        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1315
1316        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1317        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1318
1319    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1320        text = expression.name
1321        lower = text.lower()
1322        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1323        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1324        if (
1325            expression.quoted
1326            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1327            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1328            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1329        ):
1330            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1331        return text
1332
1333    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1334        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1335        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1336            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1337
1338        return text
1339
1340    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1341        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1342        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1343            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1344        return text
1345
1346    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1347        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1348        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1349        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1350        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1351        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1352
1353    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1354        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1355        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1356
1357    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1358        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1359
1360    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1361        root_properties = []
1362        with_properties = []
1363
1364        for p in expression.expressions:
1365            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1366            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1367                with_properties.append(p)
1368            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1369                root_properties.append(p)
1370
1371        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1372        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1373
1374        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1375            with_props = " " + with_props
1376
1377        return root_props + with_props
1378
1379    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1380        if properties.expressions:
1381            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1382        return ""
1383
1384    def properties(
1385        self,
1386        properties: exp.Properties,
1387        prefix: str = "",
1388        sep: str = ", ",
1389        suffix: str = "",
1390        wrapped: bool = True,
1391    ) -> str:
1392        if properties.expressions:
1393            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1394            if expressions:
1395                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1396                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1397        return ""
1398
1399    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1400        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1401
1402    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1403        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1404        for p in properties.expressions:
1405            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1406            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1407                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1408            else:
1409                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1410
1411        return properties_locs
1412
1413    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1414        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1415            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1416        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1417
1418    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1419        property_cls = expression.__class__
1420        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1421            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1422
1423        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1424        if not property_name:
1425            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1426
1427        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1428
1429    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1430        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1431            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1432            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1433
1434            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1435            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1436                like = f"({like})"
1437
1438            return like
1439
1440        if expression.expressions:
1441            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1442
1443        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1444        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1445
1446    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1447        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1448        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1449        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1450
1451    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1452        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1453        local = expression.args.get("local")
1454        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1455        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1456        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1457        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1458        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1459
1460    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1461        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1462        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1463        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1464
1465    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1466        if expression.args.get("default"):
1467            property = "DEFAULT"
1468        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1469            property = "ON"
1470        else:
1471            property = "OFF"
1472        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1473
1474    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1475        if expression.args.get("no"):
1476            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1477        if expression.args.get("default"):
1478            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1479
1480        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1481        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1482
1483    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1484        default = expression.args.get("default")
1485        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1486        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1487        if default or minimum or maximum:
1488            if default:
1489                prop = "DEFAULT"
1490            elif minimum:
1491                prop = "MINIMUM"
1492            else:
1493                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1494            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1495        units = expression.args.get("units")
1496        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1497        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1498
1499    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1500        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1501        always = expression.args.get("always")
1502        default = expression.args.get("default")
1503        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1504        never = expression.args.get("never")
1505
1506        if autotemp is not None:
1507            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1508        elif always:
1509            prop = "ALWAYS"
1510        elif default:
1511            prop = "DEFAULT"
1512        elif manual:
1513            prop = "MANUAL"
1514        elif never:
1515            prop = "NEVER"
1516        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1517
1518    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1519        no = expression.args.get("no")
1520        no = " NO" if no else ""
1521        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1522        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1523        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1524        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1525        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1526
1527    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1528        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1529            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1530        if expression.this:
1531            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1532            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1533            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1534
1535        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1536        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1537        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1538
1539    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1540        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1541
1542        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1543        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1544            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1545        else:
1546            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1547
1548        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1549
1550    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1551        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1552        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1553        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1554        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1555        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1556        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1557        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1558
1559    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1560        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1561        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1562        statistics_sql = ""
1563        if statistics is not None:
1564            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1565        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1566
1567    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1568        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1569        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1570        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1571        data_consistency = (
1572            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1573        )
1574        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1575        retention_period = (
1576            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1577        )
1578
1579        if this:
1580            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1581        else:
1582            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1583
1584        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1585
1586        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1587
1588    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1589        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1590        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1591
1592        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1593            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1594        else:
1595            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1596
1597        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1598        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1599        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1600        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1601        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1602        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1603        if is_function:
1604            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1605        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1606
1607        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1608        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1609        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1610        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1611        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1612        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1613        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1614        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1615
1616        if self.RETURNING_END:
1617            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1618        else:
1619            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1620
1621        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1622        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1623
1624    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1625        return self.set_operations(expression)
1626
1627    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1628        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1629
1630    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1631        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1632
1633    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1634        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1635        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1636        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1637        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1638        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1639
1640    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1641        return expression.name
1642
1643    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1644        return expression.name
1645
1646    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1647        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1648
1649        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1650        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1651
1652        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1653        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1654        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1655
1656        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1657        if expressions:
1658            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1659            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1660
1661        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1662
1663    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1664        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1665
1666    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1667        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1668        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1669        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1670        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1671        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1672        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1673        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1674        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1675        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1676        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1677        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1678        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1679        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1680
1681    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1682        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1683
1684    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1685        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1686        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1687        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1688        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1689
1690    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1691        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1692        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1693        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1694        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1695
1696    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1697        return ".".join(
1698            self.sql(part)
1699            for part in (
1700                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1701                expression.args.get("db"),
1702                expression.args.get("this"),
1703            )
1704            if part is not None
1705        )
1706
1707    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1708        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1709        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1710        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1711        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1712        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1713        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1714        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1715        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1716        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1717        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1718        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1719        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1720        joins = self.indent(
1721            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1722        )
1723        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1724
1725        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1726        if file_format:
1727            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1728            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1729            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1730
1731        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1732        if ordinality:
1733            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1734            alias = ""
1735
1736        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1737        if when:
1738            table = f"{table} {when}"
1739
1740        return f"{only}{table}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1741
1742    def tablesample_sql(
1743        self,
1744        expression: exp.TableSample,
1745        sep: str = " AS ",
1746        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1747    ) -> str:
1748        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1749            table = expression.this.copy()
1750            table.set("alias", None)
1751            this = self.sql(table)
1752            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1753        else:
1754            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1755            alias = ""
1756
1757        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1758        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1759        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1760        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1761        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1762        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1763        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1764        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1765        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1766
1767        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1768        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1769            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1770
1771        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1772        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1773            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1774
1775        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1776        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1777            expr = f"({expr})"
1778
1779        return (
1780            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1781        )
1782
1783    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1784        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1785
1786        if expression.this:
1787            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1788            if not expressions:
1789                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1790
1791            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1792            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1793            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1794            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1795            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1796
1797        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1798        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1799        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1800        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1801        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1802        if include_nulls is not None:
1803            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1804        else:
1805            nulls = ""
1806        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1807
1808    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1809        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1810        kind = expression.text("kind")
1811        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1812        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1813
1814    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1815        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1816
1817    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1818        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1819        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1820        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1821        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1822        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1823        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1824        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1825        if self.RETURNING_END:
1826            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1827        else:
1828            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1829        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1830        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1831
1832    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1833        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1834
1835        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1836        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1837            args = self.expressions(expression)
1838            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1839            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1840            values = (
1841                f"({values})"
1842                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1843                else values
1844            )
1845            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1846
1847        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1848        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1849        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1850
1851        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1852
1853        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1854            row = tup.expressions
1855
1856            if i == 0 and column_names:
1857                row = [
1858                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1859                ]
1860
1861            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1862
1863        if self.pretty:
1864            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1865            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1866            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1867            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1868            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1869
1870        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1871        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1872        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1873
1874    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1875        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1876
1877    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1878        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1879        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1880        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1881
1882    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1883        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1884
1885    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1886        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1887        if group_by_all is True:
1888            modifier = " ALL"
1889        elif group_by_all is False:
1890            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1891        else:
1892            modifier = ""
1893
1894        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1895
1896        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1897        grouping_sets = (
1898            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1899        )
1900
1901        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1902        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1903            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1904        else:
1905            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1906            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1907
1908        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1909        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1910            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1911        else:
1912            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1913            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1914
1915        groupings = csv(
1916            grouping_sets,
1917            cube_sql,
1918            rollup_sql,
1919            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1920            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1921        )
1922
1923        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1924            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1925
1926        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1927
1928    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1929        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1930        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1931
1932    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1933        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1934        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1935        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1936        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1937        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1938        return start + connect
1939
1940    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1941        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1942
1943    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1944        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1945            side = None
1946        else:
1947            side = expression.side
1948
1949        op_sql = " ".join(
1950            op
1951            for op in (
1952                expression.method,
1953                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1954                side,
1955                expression.kind,
1956                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1957            )
1958            if op
1959        )
1960        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1961        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1962        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1963        using = expression.args.get("using")
1964
1965        if not on_sql and using:
1966            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1967
1968        this = expression.this
1969        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1970
1971        if on_sql:
1972            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1973            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1974            if using:
1975                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1976            else:
1977                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1978        elif not op_sql:
1979            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1980                return f" {this_sql}"
1981
1982            return f", {this_sql}"
1983
1984        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
1985            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1986
1987        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
1988
1989    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1990        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1991        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1992        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1993
1994    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1995        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1996
1997        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1998        if cross_apply is True:
1999            op = "INNER JOIN "
2000        elif cross_apply is False:
2001            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2002        else:
2003            op = ""
2004
2005        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2006
2007    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2008        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2009
2010        if expression.args.get("view"):
2011            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2012            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2013            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2014            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2015            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2016            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2017
2018        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2019        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2020        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2021
2022    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2023        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2024
2025        args = [
2026            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2027            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2028            if e
2029        ]
2030
2031        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2032        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2033        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2034        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2035
2036        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2037
2038    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2039        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2040        value = expression.expression
2041        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2042        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2043        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2044        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2045
2046    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2047        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2048        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2049        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2050        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2051        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2052        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2053        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2054        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2055
2056    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2057        expressions = (
2058            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2059        )
2060        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2061        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2062
2063    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2064        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2065
2066    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2067        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2068            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2069            return ""
2070
2071        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2072        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2073        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2074        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2075
2076        if wait is not None:
2077            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2078                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2079            else:
2080                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2081
2082        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2083
2084    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2085        text = expression.this or ""
2086        if expression.is_string:
2087            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2088        return text
2089
2090    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2091        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2092            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2093            text = "".join(
2094                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2095            )
2096
2097        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2098            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2099        )
2100
2101    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2102        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2103        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2104        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2105        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2106        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2107        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2108        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2109        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2110        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2111        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2112        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2113
2114    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2115        return "NULL"
2116
2117    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2118        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2119
2120    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2121        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2122        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2123        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2124        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2125        interpolated_values = [
2126            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2127            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2128        ]
2129        interpolate = (
2130            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2131        )
2132        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2133
2134    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2135        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2136        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2137        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2138        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2139        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2140        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2141        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2142
2143    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2144        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2145
2146    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2147        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2148
2149    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2150        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2151
2152    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2153        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2154        asc = not desc
2155
2156        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2157        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2158        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2159        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2160        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2161
2162        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2163
2164        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2165        nulls_sort_change = ""
2166        if nulls_first and (
2167            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2168        ):
2169            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2170        elif (
2171            nulls_last
2172            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2173            and not nulls_are_last
2174        ):
2175            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2176
2177        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2178        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2179            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2180            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2181                self.unsupported(
2182                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2183                )
2184                nulls_sort_change = ""
2185            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2186                if expression.this.is_int:
2187                    self.unsupported(
2188                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2189                    )
2190                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2191                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2192                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2193                nulls_sort_change = ""
2194
2195        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2196        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2197
2198        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2199
2200    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2201        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2202        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2203
2204        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2205
2206        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2207
2208    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2209        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2210        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2211        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2212        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2213        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2214        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2215        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2216        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2217        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2218        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2219        definition_sqls = [
2220            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2221            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2222        ]
2223        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2224        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2225        body = "".join(
2226            (
2227                partition,
2228                order,
2229                measures,
2230                rows,
2231                after,
2232                pattern,
2233                define,
2234            )
2235        )
2236        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2237        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2238        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2239
2240    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2241        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2242
2243        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2244            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2245        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2246            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2247
2248        return csv(
2249            *sqls,
2250            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2251            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2252            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2253            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2254            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2255            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2256            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2257            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2258            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2259            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2260            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2261            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2262            self.options_modifier(expression),
2263            sep="",
2264        )
2265
2266    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2267        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2268        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2269
2270    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2271        return ""
2272
2273    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2274        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2275    ) -> t.List[str]:
2276        return [
2277            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2278            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2279        ]
2280
2281    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2282        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2283        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2284        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2285
2286    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2287        into = expression.args.get("into")
2288        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2289            into.pop()
2290
2291        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2292        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2293        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2294        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2295
2296        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2297        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2298            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2299            limit.pop()
2300        else:
2301            top = ""
2302
2303        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2304
2305        if kind:
2306            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2307                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2308            else:
2309                if kind == "STRUCT":
2310                    expressions = self.expressions(
2311                        sqls=[
2312                            self.sql(
2313                                exp.Struct(
2314                                    expressions=[
2315                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2316                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2317                                        else e
2318                                        for e in expression.expressions
2319                                    ]
2320                                )
2321                            )
2322                        ]
2323                    )
2324                kind = ""
2325
2326        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2327        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2328        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2329        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2330        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2331            expression,
2332            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2333            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2334            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2335        )
2336
2337        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2338
2339        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2340            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2341                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2342            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2343                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2344            else:
2345                table_kind = ""
2346            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2347
2348        return sql
2349
2350    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2351        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2352        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2353        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2354
2355    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2356        if expression.expressions:
2357            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2358        return ""
2359
2360    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2361        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2362        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2363        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2364        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2365        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2366        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2367        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2368
2369    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2370        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2371        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2372
2373    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2374        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2375        kind = expression.text("kind")
2376        if kind:
2377            kind = f"{kind}."
2378        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2379
2380    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2381        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2382
2383    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2384        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2385        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2386
2387        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2388        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2389
2390        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2391        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2392
2393    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2394        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2395        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2396
2397    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2398        if not self.OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS:
2399            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2400            order = expression.args.get("order")
2401
2402            if limit or order:
2403                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2404
2405                if limit:
2406                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2407                if order:
2408                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2409                return self.sql(select)
2410
2411        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2412        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2413
2414        while stack:
2415            node = stack.pop()
2416
2417            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
2418                stack.append(node.expression)
2419                stack.append(
2420                    self.maybe_comment(
2421                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2422                        comments=node.comments,
2423                        separated=True,
2424                    )
2425                )
2426                stack.append(node.this)
2427            else:
2428                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2429
2430        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2431        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2432        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2433
2434    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2435        return self.set_operations(expression)
2436
2437    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2438        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2439        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2440        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2441        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2442
2443    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2444        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2445
2446        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2447        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2448
2449        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2450            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2451                alias.append("columns", offset)
2452
2453        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2454            columns = alias.columns
2455            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2456        else:
2457            alias = self.sql(alias)
2458
2459        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2460        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2461            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2462        else:
2463            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2464                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2465            elif offset:
2466                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2467            else:
2468                suffix = alias
2469
2470        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2471
2472    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2473        return ""
2474
2475    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2476        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2477        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2478
2479    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2480        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2481        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2482        order = expression.args.get("order")
2483        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2484        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2485        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2486        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2487
2488        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2489
2490        first = expression.args.get("first")
2491        if first is None:
2492            first = ""
2493        else:
2494            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2495
2496        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2497            return f"{this} {alias}"
2498
2499        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2500        return f"{this} ({args})"
2501
2502    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2503        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2504        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2505
2506    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2507        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2508        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2509        end = (
2510            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2511            or "CURRENT ROW"
2512        )
2513        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2514
2515    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2516        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2517        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2518        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2519
2520    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2521        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2522        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2523        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2524        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2525
2526    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2527        return apply_index_offset(
2528            expression.this,
2529            expression.expressions,
2530            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2531        )
2532
2533    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2534        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2535        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2536        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2537
2538    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2539        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2540
2541    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2542        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2543        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2544            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2545                this = self.wrap(this)
2546            return f"ANY{this}"
2547        return f"ANY {this}"
2548
2549    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2550        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2551
2552    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2553        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2554        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2555
2556        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2557            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2558            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2559
2560        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2561
2562        if default:
2563            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2564
2565        statements.append("END")
2566
2567        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2568            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2569
2570        return " ".join(statements)
2571
2572    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2573        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2574        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2575        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2576
2577    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2578        order = expression.args.get("order")
2579        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2580        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2581
2582    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2583        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2584        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2585        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2586
2587    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2588        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2589
2590        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2591            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2592        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2593            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2594        else:
2595            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2596
2597    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2598        args = expression.expressions
2599        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2600            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2601
2602        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2603            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2604
2605        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2606            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2607
2608        return args
2609
2610    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2611        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2612
2613        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2614        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2615            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2616
2617        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2618
2619    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2620        return self.func(
2621            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2622        )
2623
2624    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2625        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2626        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2627
2628    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2629        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2630        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2631        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2632        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2633        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2634        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2635        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2636        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2637
2638    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2639        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2640        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2641        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2642        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2643
2644    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2645        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2646
2647    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2648        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2649        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2650        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2651
2652    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2653        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2654
2655    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2656        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2657        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2658
2659    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2660        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2661            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2662            if not callable(transform):
2663                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2664                return ""
2665
2666            return transform(self, expression)
2667
2668        if isinstance(expression, int):
2669            return str(expression)
2670
2671        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2672            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2673            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2674        else:
2675            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2676            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2677
2678        return escaped
2679
2680    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2681        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2682
2683    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2684        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2685        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2686
2687        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2688        if unique_keys is not None:
2689            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2690        else:
2691            unique_keys = ""
2692
2693        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2694        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2695        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2696        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2697
2698        return self.func(
2699            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2700            *expression.expressions,
2701            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2702        )
2703
2704    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2705        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2706
2707    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2708        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2709        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2710        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2711        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2712        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2713        return self.func(
2714            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2715        )
2716
2717    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2718        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2719        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2720        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2721        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2722        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2723        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2724        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2725        return self.func(
2726            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2727            this,
2728            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2729        )
2730
2731    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2732        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2733        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2734        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2735
2736        if nested_schema:
2737            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2738
2739        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2740        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2741        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2742        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2743
2744    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2745        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2746
2747    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2748        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2749        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2750        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2751        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2752        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2753        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2754        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2755        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2756        return self.func(
2757            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2758        )
2759
2760    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2761        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2762        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2763        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2764        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2765        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2766        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2767
2768    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2769        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2770        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2771        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2772        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2773        with_ = (
2774            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2775            if expressions
2776            else ""
2777        )
2778        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2779
2780    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2781        query = expression.args.get("query")
2782        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2783        field = expression.args.get("field")
2784        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2785
2786        if query:
2787            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2788        elif unnest:
2789            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2790        elif field:
2791            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2792        else:
2793            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2794
2795        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2796
2797    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2798        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2799
2800    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2801        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2802        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2803            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2804        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2805
2806        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2807            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2808            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2809
2810        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2811        if this:
2812            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2813            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2814
2815        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2816
2817    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2818        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2819
2820    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2821        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2822        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2823        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2824        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2825        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2826        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2827
2828    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2829        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2830
2831    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2832        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2833        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2834
2835    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2836        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2837        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2838        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2839        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2840
2841    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2842        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2843
2844    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2845        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2846        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2847        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2848
2849    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2850        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2851        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2852
2853        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2854            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2855        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2856            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2857
2858        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2859
2860    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2861        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2862
2863    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2864        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2865        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2866        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2867
2868    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2869        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2870        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2871        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2872
2873    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2874        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2875        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2876        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2877
2878    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2879        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2880
2881    def and_sql(
2882        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2883    ) -> str:
2884        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2885
2886    def or_sql(
2887        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2888    ) -> str:
2889        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2890
2891    def xor_sql(
2892        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2893    ) -> str:
2894        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2895
2896    def connector_sql(
2897        self,
2898        expression: exp.Connector,
2899        op: str,
2900        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2901    ) -> str:
2902        if stack is not None:
2903            if expression.expressions:
2904                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2905            else:
2906                stack.append(expression.right)
2907                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2908                    for comment in expression.comments:
2909                        if comment:
2910                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2911                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2912            return op
2913
2914        stack = [expression]
2915        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2916        ops = set()
2917
2918        while stack:
2919            node = stack.pop()
2920            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2921                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2922            else:
2923                sql = self.sql(node)
2924                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2925                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2926                else:
2927                    sqls.append(sql)
2928
2929        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2930        return sep.join(sqls)
2931
2932    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2933        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2934
2935    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2936        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2937
2938    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2939        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2940
2941    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2942        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2943
2944    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2945        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2946
2947    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2948        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2949
2950    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2951        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2952        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2953        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2954        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2955        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2956        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2957        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
2958
2959    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2960        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2961        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2962
2963    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2964        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
2965
2966    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2967        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2968            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2969        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2970
2971    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2972        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2973
2974    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2975        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2976        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2977        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
2978        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2979        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2980        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2981
2982    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2983        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2984        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2985        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2986        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2987        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2988        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2989        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2990        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2991        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2992
2993    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2994        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2995        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2996        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2997        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2998
2999        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3000            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3001
3002        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3003
3004    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3005        return "BEGIN"
3006
3007    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3008        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3009        if chain is not None:
3010            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3011
3012        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3013
3014    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3015        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3016        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3017        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3018
3019    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3020        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3021
3022        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3023        if dtype:
3024            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3025            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3026            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3027            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3028            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3029
3030        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3031        if default:
3032            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3033
3034        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3035        if comment:
3036            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3037
3038        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3039        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3040
3041        if not drop and not allow_null:
3042            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3043
3044        if allow_null is not None:
3045            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3046            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3047
3048        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3049
3050    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3051        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3052        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3053            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3054        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3055
3056    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3057        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3058        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3059        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3060        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3061        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3062
3063    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3064        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3065            # Remove db from tables
3066            expression = expression.transform(
3067                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3068            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3069        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3070        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3071
3072    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3073        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3074        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3075        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3076        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3077
3078    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3079        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3080        return f"SET {exprs}"
3081
3082    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3083        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3084
3085        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3086            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3087        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3088            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3089        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3090            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3091        else:
3092            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3093
3094        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3095        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3096        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3097        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3098        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3099        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3100        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
3101
3102    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3103        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3104            return self.expressions(
3105                expression,
3106                key="actions",
3107                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3108            )
3109        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3110
3111    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3112        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3113        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3114        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3115
3116    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3117        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3118
3119    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3120        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3121
3122        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3123            case = exp.case()
3124            for arg in expression.expressions:
3125                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3126            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3127
3128        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3129
3130        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3131        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3132        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3133
3134    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3135        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3136
3137    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3138        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3139
3140    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3141        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3142        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3143        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3144        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3145
3146    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3147        return self.sql(
3148            exp.Cast(
3149                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3150                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3151            )
3152        )
3153
3154    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3155        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3156            return self.func(
3157                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3158            )
3159        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3160
3161    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3162        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3163
3164        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3165            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3166
3167        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3168            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3169                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3170
3171        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3172            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3173                return self.sql(
3174                    exp.cast(
3175                        l / r,
3176                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3177                    )
3178                )
3179
3180        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3181
3182    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3183        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3184
3185    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3186        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3187
3188    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3189        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3190
3191    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3192        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3193
3194    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3195        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3196
3197    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3198        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3199
3200    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3201        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3202
3203    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3204        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3205
3206    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3207        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3208
3209    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3210        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3211
3212    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3213        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3214
3215    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3216        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3217            return self.sql(
3218                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3219            )
3220        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3221
3222    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3223        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3224
3225    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3226        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3227
3228    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3229        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3230
3231    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3232        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3233
3234    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3235        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3236
3237    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3238        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3239
3240    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3241        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3242
3243    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3244        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3245
3246    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3247        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3248
3249    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3250        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3251
3252    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3253        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3254
3255    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3256        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3257
3258    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3259        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3260
3261    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3262        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3263            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3264            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3265
3266        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3267
3268    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3269        this = expression.this
3270        expr = expression.expression
3271
3272        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3273            this, expr = expr, this
3274        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3275            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3276                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3277
3278            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3279
3280        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3281
3282    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3283        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3284        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3285        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3286        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3287        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3288
3289    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3290        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3291        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3292
3293    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3294        args = []
3295
3296        for key in expression.arg_types:
3297            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3298
3299            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3300                for value in arg_value:
3301                    args.append(value)
3302            elif arg_value is not None:
3303                args.append(arg_value)
3304
3305        if self.normalize_functions:
3306            name = expression.sql_name()
3307        else:
3308            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3309
3310        return self.func(name, *args)
3311
3312    def func(
3313        self,
3314        name: str,
3315        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3316        prefix: str = "(",
3317        suffix: str = ")",
3318    ) -> str:
3319        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3320
3321    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3322        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3323        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3324            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3325        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3326
3327    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3328        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3329
3330    def format_time(
3331        self,
3332        expression: exp.Expression,
3333        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3334        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3335    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3336        return format_time(
3337            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3338            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3339            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3340        )
3341
3342    def expressions(
3343        self,
3344        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3345        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3346        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3347        flat: bool = False,
3348        indent: bool = True,
3349        skip_first: bool = False,
3350        skip_last: bool = False,
3351        sep: str = ", ",
3352        prefix: str = "",
3353        dynamic: bool = False,
3354        new_line: bool = False,
3355    ) -> str:
3356        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3357
3358        if not expressions:
3359            return ""
3360
3361        if flat:
3362            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3363
3364        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3365
3366        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3367        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
3368            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3369
3370        result_sqls = []
3371        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3372            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3373            if not sql:
3374                continue
3375
3376            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3377
3378            if self.pretty:
3379                if self.leading_comma:
3380                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3381                else:
3382                    result_sqls.append(
3383                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3384                    )
3385            else:
3386                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3387
3388        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3389            if new_line:
3390                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3391                result_sqls.append("")
3392            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
3393        else:
3394            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3395        return (
3396            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3397            if indent
3398            else result_sql
3399        )
3400
3401    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3402        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3403        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3404        if flat:
3405            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3406        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3407
3408    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3409        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3410        if not property_name:
3411            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3412        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3413
3414    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3415        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3416
3417    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3418        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3419
3420    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3421        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3422        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3423        expressions = (
3424            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3425        )
3426        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3427
3428    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3429        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3430        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3431        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3432
3433    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3434        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3435
3436    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3437        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3438        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3439        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3440        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3441
3442        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3443        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3444            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3445            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3446            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3447            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3448        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3449            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3450                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3451            else:
3452                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3453        else:
3454            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3455        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3456
3457    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3458        table = expression.this
3459        table_alias = ""
3460
3461        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3462        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3463            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3464            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3465
3466        this = self.sql(table)
3467        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3468        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3469        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3470        sep = self.sep()
3471
3472        return self.prepend_ctes(
3473            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3474        )
3475
3476    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3477        if expression.args.get("format"):
3478            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3479
3480        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3481
3482    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3483        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3484            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3485            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3486
3487        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3488        if not fmt:
3489            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3490            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3491
3492        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3493
3494    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3495        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3496        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3497        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3498        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3499        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3500
3501    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3502        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3503        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3504        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3505        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3506
3507    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3508        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3509
3510    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3511        return ""
3512
3513    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3514        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3515        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3516        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3517        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3518        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3519
3520    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3521        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3522        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3523
3524        if having:
3525            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3526
3527        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3528
3529    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3530        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3531        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3532        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3533        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3534        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3535        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3536        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3537        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3538        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3539        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3540        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3541        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3542        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3543
3544    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3545        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3546        if key_block_size:
3547            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3548
3549        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3550        if using:
3551            return f"USING {using}"
3552
3553        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3554        if parser:
3555            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3556
3557        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3558        if comment:
3559            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3560
3561        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3562        if visible is not None:
3563            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3564
3565        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3566        if engine_attr:
3567            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3568
3569        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3570        if secondary_engine_attr:
3571            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3572
3573        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3574        return ""
3575
3576    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3577        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3578        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3579
3580    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3581        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3582        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3583        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3584        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3585        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3586        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3587        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3588        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3589        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3590        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3591        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3592
3593    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3594        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3595            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3596
3597        case = exp.Case().when(
3598            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3599            expression.args["true"],
3600            copy=False,
3601        )
3602        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3603        if else_cond:
3604            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3605
3606        return self.sql(case)
3607
3608    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3609        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3610        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3611        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3612        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3613        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3614        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3615
3616    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3617        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3618
3619    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3620        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3621
3622    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3623        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3624        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3625        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3626        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3627        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3628        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3629
3630    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3631        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3632        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3633        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3634
3635    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3636        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3637        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3638        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3639
3640    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3641        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3642
3643    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3644        arg = expression.this
3645        if not arg.type:
3646            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3647
3648            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3649
3650        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3651            return self.sql(arg)
3652
3653        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3654        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3655
3656    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3657        this = expression.this
3658        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3659            return self.sql(this)
3660
3661        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3662
3663    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3664        this = expression.this
3665        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3666            return self.sql(this)
3667
3668        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3669
3670    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3671        this = expression.this
3672        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3673
3674        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3675            return self.sql(
3676                exp.cast(
3677                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3678                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3679                )
3680            )
3681
3682        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3683            return self.sql(this)
3684
3685        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3686
3687    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3688        return self.sql(
3689            exp.func(
3690                "DATEDIFF",
3691                expression.this,
3692                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3693                "day",
3694            )
3695        )
3696
3697    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3698        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3699            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3700
3701        unit = expression.text("unit")
3702        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3703            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3704
3705        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3706
3707    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3708        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3709
3710        return self.func(
3711            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3712        )
3713
3714    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3715        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3716            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3717            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3718            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3719            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3720
3721        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3722
3723        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3724        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3725            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3726
3727        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3728
3729    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3730        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3731        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3732
3733    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3734        expression.set(
3735            "expressions",
3736            [
3737                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3738                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3739                else e
3740                for e in expression.expressions
3741            ],
3742        )
3743
3744        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3745
3746    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3747        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3748        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3749
3750        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3751
3752    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3753        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3754        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3755
3756        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3757
3758        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3759        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3760
3761        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3762        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3763
3764        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3765        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3766
3767        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3768        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3769
3770        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3771
3772    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3773    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3774    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3775        to = expression.this
3776        value = expression.expression
3777        style = expression.args.get("style")
3778        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3779        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3780
3781        if not to or not value:
3782            return ""
3783
3784        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3785        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3786            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3787
3788        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3789        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3790
3791        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3792        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3793            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3794
3795            style_value = style.name
3796            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3797            if not converted_style:
3798                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3799
3800            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3801
3802            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3803                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3804            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3805                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3806            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3807                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3808            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3809                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3810
3811        if not transformed:
3812            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3813
3814        return self.sql(transformed)
3815
3816    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3817        this = expression.this
3818        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3819            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3820            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3821
3822        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3823            return f".{this}"
3824
3825        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3826        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3827
3828    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3829        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3830        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3831
3832    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3833        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3834            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3835
3836            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3837
3838        return expression
3839
3840    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3841        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3842            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3843            mods = sorted(
3844                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3845                key=lambda x: 0
3846                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3847                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3848            )
3849
3850            if mods:
3851                mod = mods[0]
3852                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3853                this.meta["inline"] = True
3854                mod.this.replace(this)
3855                return self.sql(expression.this)
3856
3857            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3858
3859            if agg_func:
3860                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3861
3862        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3863
3864    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
3865        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
3866        if self.pretty:
3867            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
3868        return string
3869
3870    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3871        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3872
3873        if expression.expressions:
3874            upper = option.upper()
3875
3876            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
3877            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
3878
3879            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
3880            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
3881            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
3882            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
3883
3884        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3885
3886        if not value:
3887            return option
3888
3889        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3890
3891        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
3892
3893    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3894        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3895        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3896            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3897            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3898            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3899        else:
3900            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3901            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3902            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
3903
3904        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3905        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
3906
3907        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3908        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3909
3910        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3911        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3912
3913        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3914        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3915
3916        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
3917
3918    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3919        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3920        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3921
3922        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3923        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
3924        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
3925        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3926
3927        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3928        params = self.expressions(
3929            expression,
3930            key="params",
3931            sep=sep,
3932            new_line=True,
3933            skip_last=True,
3934            skip_first=True,
3935            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
3936        )
3937
3938        if params:
3939            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
3940                params = f" WITH ({params})"
3941            elif not self.pretty:
3942                params = f" {params}"
3943
3944        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
3945
3946    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
3947        return ""
3948
3949    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
3950        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
3951        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
3952        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
3953        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
3954        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
3955
3956        if filter_col or retention_period:
3957            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
3958
3959        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
3960
3961    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
3962        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
3963    ) -> str:
3964        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3965        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3966        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3967        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
3968
3969    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
3970        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3971        this = f"TABLE {this}"
3972        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level. Default: 2.
  • indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of subqueries and filters under a WHERE clause. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None)
561    def __init__(
562        self,
563        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
564        identify: str | bool = False,
565        normalize: bool = False,
566        pad: int = 2,
567        indent: int = 2,
568        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
569        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
570        max_unsupported: int = 3,
571        leading_comma: bool = False,
572        max_text_width: int = 80,
573        comments: bool = True,
574        dialect: DialectType = None,
575    ):
576        import sqlglot
577        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
578
579        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
580        self.identify = identify
581        self.normalize = normalize
582        self.pad = pad
583        self._indent = indent
584        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
585        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
586        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
587        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
588        self.comments = comments
589        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
590
591        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
592        self.normalize_functions = (
593            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
594        )
595
596        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
597        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
598            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
599        )
600        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
601            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
602        )
603
604        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
TRANSFORMS: Dict[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], Callable[..., str]] = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EphemeralColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExcludeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONExtract'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONExtractScalar'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TagColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Timestamp'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithOperator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: Optional[bool] = True
IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_UNION = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = 'TABLESAMPLE'
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = 'SEED'
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ':'
INSERT_OVERWRITE = ' OVERWRITE TABLE'
SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS = True
COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
TRY_SUPPORTED = True
SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
STAR_EXCEPT = 'EXCEPT'
HEX_FUNC = 'HEX'
WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = 'WITH'
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET', <Type.ROWVERSION: 'ROWVERSION'>: 'VARBINARY'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'MICROSECONDS': 'MICROSECOND', 'SECONDS': 'SECOND', 'MINUTES': 'MINUTE', 'HOURS': 'HOUR', 'DAYS': 'DAY', 'WEEKS': 'WEEK', 'MONTHS': 'MONTH', 'QUARTERS': 'QUARTER', 'YEARS': 'YEAR'}
AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {'cluster': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'distribute': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'qualify': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'sort': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'windows': <function Generator.<lambda>>}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ':'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Union'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {<Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>, <Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>, <Type.CHAR: 'CHAR'>, <Type.VARCHAR: 'VARCHAR'>}
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
dialect
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
606    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
607        """
608        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
609
610        Args:
611            expression: The syntax tree.
612            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
613                it is safer to copy.
614
615        Returns:
616            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
617        """
618        if copy:
619            expression = expression.copy()
620
621        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
622
623        self.unsupported_messages = []
624        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
625
626        if self.pretty:
627            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
628
629        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
630            return sql
631
632        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
633            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
634                logger.warning(msg)
635        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
636            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
637
638        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression:
640    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
641        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
642        if (
643            not expression.parent
644            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
645            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
646        ):
647            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
648
649            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
650
651        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
652            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
653
654            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
655
656        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
658    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
659        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
660            raise UnsupportedError(message)
661        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
663    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
664        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
666    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
667        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
669    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
670        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
671        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
672        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None, separated: bool = False) -> str:
674    def maybe_comment(
675        self,
676        sql: str,
677        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
678        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
679        separated: bool = False,
680    ) -> str:
681        comments = (
682            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
683            if self.comments
684            else None
685        )
686
687        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
688            return sql
689
690        comments_sql = " ".join(
691            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
692        )
693
694        if not comments_sql:
695            return sql
696
697        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
698
699        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
700            return (
701                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
702                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
703                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
704            )
705
706        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
708    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
709        this_sql = (
710            self.sql(expression)
711            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
712            else self.sql(expression, "this")
713        )
714        if not this_sql:
715            return "()"
716
717        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
718        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
720    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
721        original = self.identify
722        self.identify = False
723        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
724        self.identify = original
725        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
727    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
728        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
729            return name.upper()
730        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
731            return name.lower()
732        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
734    def indent(
735        self,
736        sql: str,
737        level: int = 0,
738        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
739        skip_first: bool = False,
740        skip_last: bool = False,
741    ) -> str:
742        if not self.pretty or not sql:
743            return sql
744
745        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
746        lines = sql.split("\n")
747
748        return "\n".join(
749            (
750                line
751                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
752                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
753            )
754            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
755        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
757    def sql(
758        self,
759        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
760        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
761        comment: bool = True,
762    ) -> str:
763        if not expression:
764            return ""
765
766        if isinstance(expression, str):
767            return expression
768
769        if key:
770            value = expression.args.get(key)
771            if value:
772                return self.sql(value)
773            return ""
774
775        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
776
777        if callable(transform):
778            sql = transform(self, expression)
779        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
780            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
781
782            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
783                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
784            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
785                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
786            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
787                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
788            else:
789                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
790        else:
791            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
792
793        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
795    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
796        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
797        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
798        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
800    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
801        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
802        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
803        options = expression.args.get("options")
804        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
805        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
806        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
807        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
808        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
810    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
811        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
812            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
813        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
814        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
816    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
817        return ".".join(
818            self.sql(part)
819            for part in (
820                expression.args.get("catalog"),
821                expression.args.get("db"),
822                expression.args.get("table"),
823                expression.args.get("this"),
824            )
825            if part
826        )
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
828    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
829        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
830
831        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
832            join_mark = ""
833            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
834
835        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
837    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
838        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
839        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
840        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
841        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
843    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
844        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
845        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
846        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
847        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
848        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
849        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
850        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
851        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
852
853        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
854            kind = ""
855
856        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
858    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
859        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
860        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
861        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
863    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
864        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
865        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
866            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
867        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
868            persisted = " PERSISTED"
869        else:
870            persisted = ""
871        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
873    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
874        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
876    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
877        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
878            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
879        else:
880            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
881
882        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
884    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
885        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
886    ) -> str:
887        this = ""
888        if expression.this is not None:
889            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
890            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
891
892        start = expression.args.get("start")
893        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
894        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
895        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
896        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
897        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
898        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
899        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
900        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
901        cycle_sql = ""
902
903        if cycle is not None:
904            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
905            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
906
907        sequence_opts = ""
908        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
909            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
910            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
911
912        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
913        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
914
915        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint) -> str:
917    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
918        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
919    ) -> str:
920        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
921        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
922        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint) -> str:
924    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
925        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
926    ) -> str:
927        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
929    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
930        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
932    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
933        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
935    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
936        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
937        if desc is not None:
938            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
939        return "PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
941    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
942        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
943        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
944        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
945        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
946        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
947        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
948        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
950    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
951        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
 953    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 954        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 955        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 956        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 957
 958        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 959
 960        properties_sql = ""
 961        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 962            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 963        ):
 964            properties_sql = self.sql(
 965                exp.Properties(
 966                    expressions=[
 967                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 968                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 969                    ]
 970                )
 971            )
 972
 973            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
 974                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
 975            elif not self.pretty:
 976                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
 977                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
 978
 979        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 980        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 981
 982        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 983        if expression_sql:
 984            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 985
 986            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 987                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 988                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 989                        exp.Properties(
 990                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 991                        ),
 992                        wrapped=False,
 993                    )
 994                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 995                else:
 996                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 997
 998        postindex_props_sql = ""
 999        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1000            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1001                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1002                wrapped=False,
1003                prefix=" ",
1004            )
1005
1006        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1007        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1008        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1009
1010        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1011        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1012
1013        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1014        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1015            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1016                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1017                sep=" ",
1018                prefix=" ",
1019                wrapped=False,
1020            )
1021
1022        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1023
1024        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1025        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1026            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1027                exp.Properties(
1028                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1029                ),
1030                sep=" ",
1031                prefix=" ",
1032                wrapped=False,
1033            )
1034
1035        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1036        no_schema_binding = (
1037            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1038        )
1039
1040        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1041        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1042
1043        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1044        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1046    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1047        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1048        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1049        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1050        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1051        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1052        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1053        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1054        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1055        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1056        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1057
1058        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1059        if cache is None:
1060            cache_str = ""
1061        elif cache is True:
1062            cache_str = " CACHE"
1063        else:
1064            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1065
1066        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1067        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1068
1069        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
1071    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1072        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1073        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1074        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1075        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
1077    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1078        style = expression.args.get("style")
1079        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1080        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def heredoc_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Heredoc) -> str:
1082    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1083        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1084        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1086    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1087        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1088        if with_:
1089            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1090        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
1092    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1093        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1094        recursive = (
1095            "RECURSIVE "
1096            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1097            else ""
1098        )
1099
1100        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
1102    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1103        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1104
1105        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1106        if materialized is False:
1107            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1108        elif materialized:
1109            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1110
1111        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
1113    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1114        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1115        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1116        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1117
1118        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1119            columns = ""
1120            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1121
1122        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1123            alias = self._next_name()
1124
1125        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
1127    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1128        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1129        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1130            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1131        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
1133    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1134        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1135        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1136            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1137        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
1139    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1140        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1141        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1142            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1143        return this
def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnicodeString) -> str:
1145    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1146        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1147        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1148
1149        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1150            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1151            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1152        else:
1153            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1154            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1155
1156        if escape:
1157            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1158            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1159        else:
1160            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1161            escape_sql = ""
1162
1163        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1164            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1165
1166        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
1168    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1169        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1170        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1172    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1173        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1174        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1175        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1176        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
1178    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1179        type_value = expression.this
1180
1181        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1182            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1183        else:
1184            type_sql = (
1185                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1186                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1187                else type_value
1188            )
1189
1190        nested = ""
1191        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1192        values = ""
1193
1194        if interior:
1195            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1196                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1197                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1198                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1199                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1200                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1201            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1202                nested = f" {interior}"
1203            else:
1204                nested = f"({interior})"
1205
1206        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1207        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1208            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1209            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1210        ):
1211            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1212
1213        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
1215    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1216        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1217        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1218        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1219        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
1221    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1222        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1223        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1224        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1225        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1226        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1227        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1228        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1229        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1230        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1231        if self.RETURNING_END:
1232            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1233        else:
1234            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1235        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
1237    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1238        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1239        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1240        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1241        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1242        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1243        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1244        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1245        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1246        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1247        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1248        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1249        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1250        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1252    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1253        return self.set_operations(expression)
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1255    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1256        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
1258    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1259        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1260        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1261        count = expression.args.get("count")
1262        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1263        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1264            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1265        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1266        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
1268    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1269        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1270            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1271            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1272            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1273
1274        agg = expression.this
1275        agg_arg = agg.this
1276        cond = expression.expression.this
1277        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1278        return self.sql(agg)
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
1280    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1281        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1282            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1283            return ""
1284
1285        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexParameters) -> str:
1287    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1288        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1289        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1290        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1291        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1292        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1293        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1294        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1295        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1296        if include:
1297            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1298        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1299        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1300        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1301        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1302
1303        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
1305    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1306        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1307        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1308        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1309        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1310        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1311        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1312        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1313
1314        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1315
1316        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1317        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
1319    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1320        text = expression.name
1321        lower = text.lower()
1322        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1323        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1324        if (
1325            expression.quoted
1326            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1327            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1328            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1329        ):
1330            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1331        return text
def hex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hex) -> str:
1333    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1334        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1335        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1336            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1337
1338        return text
def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LowerHex) -> str:
1340    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1341        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1342        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1343            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1344        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1346    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1347        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1348        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1349        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1350        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1351        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1353    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1354        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1355        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1357    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1358        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1360    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1361        root_properties = []
1362        with_properties = []
1363
1364        for p in expression.expressions:
1365            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1366            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1367                with_properties.append(p)
1368            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1369                root_properties.append(p)
1370
1371        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1372        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1373
1374        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1375            with_props = " " + with_props
1376
1377        return root_props + with_props
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1379    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1380        if properties.expressions:
1381            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1382        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1384    def properties(
1385        self,
1386        properties: exp.Properties,
1387        prefix: str = "",
1388        sep: str = ", ",
1389        suffix: str = "",
1390        wrapped: bool = True,
1391    ) -> str:
1392        if properties.expressions:
1393            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1394            if expressions:
1395                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1396                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1397        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1399    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1400        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1402    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1403        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1404        for p in properties.expressions:
1405            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1406            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1407                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1408            else:
1409                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1410
1411        return properties_locs
def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1413    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1414        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1415            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1416        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1418    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1419        property_cls = expression.__class__
1420        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1421            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1422
1423        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1424        if not property_name:
1425            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1426
1427        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1429    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1430        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1431            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1432            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1433
1434            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1435            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1436                like = f"({like})"
1437
1438            return like
1439
1440        if expression.expressions:
1441            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1442
1443        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1444        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1446    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1447        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1448        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1449        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1451    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1452        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1453        local = expression.args.get("local")
1454        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1455        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1456        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1457        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1458        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1460    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1461        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1462        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1463        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1465    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1466        if expression.args.get("default"):
1467            property = "DEFAULT"
1468        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1469            property = "ON"
1470        else:
1471            property = "OFF"
1472        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1474    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1475        if expression.args.get("no"):
1476            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1477        if expression.args.get("default"):
1478            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1479
1480        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1481        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1483    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1484        default = expression.args.get("default")
1485        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1486        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1487        if default or minimum or maximum:
1488            if default:
1489                prop = "DEFAULT"
1490            elif minimum:
1491                prop = "MINIMUM"
1492            else:
1493                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1494            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1495        units = expression.args.get("units")
1496        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1497        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1499    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1500        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1501        always = expression.args.get("always")
1502        default = expression.args.get("default")
1503        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1504        never = expression.args.get("never")
1505
1506        if autotemp is not None:
1507            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1508        elif always:
1509            prop = "ALWAYS"
1510        elif default:
1511            prop = "DEFAULT"
1512        elif manual:
1513            prop = "MANUAL"
1514        elif never:
1515            prop = "NEVER"
1516        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1518    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1519        no = expression.args.get("no")
1520        no = " NO" if no else ""
1521        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1522        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1523        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1524        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1525        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1527    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1528        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1529            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1530        if expression.this:
1531            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1532            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1533            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1534
1535        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1536        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1537        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1539    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1540        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1541
1542        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1543        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1544            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1545        else:
1546            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1547
1548        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1550    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1551        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1552        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1553        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1554        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1555        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1556        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1557        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1559    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1560        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1561        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1562        statistics_sql = ""
1563        if statistics is not None:
1564            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1565        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1567    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1568        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1569        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1570        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1571        data_consistency = (
1572            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1573        )
1574        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1575        retention_period = (
1576            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1577        )
1578
1579        if this:
1580            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1581        else:
1582            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1583
1584        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1585
1586        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1588    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1589        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1590        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1591
1592        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1593            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1594        else:
1595            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1596
1597        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1598        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1599        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1600        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1601        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1602        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1603        if is_function:
1604            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1605        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1606
1607        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1608        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1609        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1610        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1611        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1612        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1613        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1614        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1615
1616        if self.RETURNING_END:
1617            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1618        else:
1619            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1620
1621        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1622        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1624    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1625        return self.set_operations(expression)
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1627    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1628        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1630    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1631        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str:
1633    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1634        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1635        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1636        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1637        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1638        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1640    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1641        return expression.name
def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1643    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1644        return expression.name
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1646    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1647        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1648
1649        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1650        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1651
1652        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1653        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1654        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1655
1656        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1657        if expressions:
1658            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1659            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1660
1661        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1663    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1664        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1666    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1667        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1668        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1669        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1670        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1671        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1672        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1673        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1674        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1675        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1676        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1677        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1678        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1679        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1681    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1682        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1684    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1685        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1686        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1687        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1688        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HistoricalData) -> str:
1690    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1691        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1692        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1693        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1694        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
def table_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table) -> str:
1696    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1697        return ".".join(
1698            self.sql(part)
1699            for part in (
1700                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1701                expression.args.get("db"),
1702                expression.args.get("this"),
1703            )
1704            if part is not None
1705        )
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1707    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1708        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1709        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1710        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1711        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1712        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1713        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1714        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1715        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1716        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1717        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1718        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1719        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1720        joins = self.indent(
1721            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1722        )
1723        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1724
1725        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1726        if file_format:
1727            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1728            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1729            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1730
1731        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1732        if ordinality:
1733            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1734            alias = ""
1735
1736        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1737        if when:
1738            table = f"{table} {when}"
1739
1740        return f"{only}{table}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, sep: str = ' AS ', tablesample_keyword: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
1742    def tablesample_sql(
1743        self,
1744        expression: exp.TableSample,
1745        sep: str = " AS ",
1746        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1747    ) -> str:
1748        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1749            table = expression.this.copy()
1750            table.set("alias", None)
1751            this = self.sql(table)
1752            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1753        else:
1754            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1755            alias = ""
1756
1757        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1758        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1759        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1760        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1761        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1762        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1763        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1764        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1765        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1766
1767        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1768        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1769            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1770
1771        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1772        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1773            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1774
1775        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1776        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1777            expr = f"({expr})"
1778
1779        return (
1780            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1781        )
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1783    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1784        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1785
1786        if expression.this:
1787            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1788            if not expressions:
1789                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1790
1791            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1792            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1793            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1794            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1795            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1796
1797        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1798        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1799        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1800        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1801        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1802        if include_nulls is not None:
1803            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1804        else:
1805            nulls = ""
1806        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
1808    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1809        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1810        kind = expression.text("kind")
1811        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1812        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1814    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1815        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1817    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1818        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1819        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1820        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1821        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1822        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1823        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1824        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1825        if self.RETURNING_END:
1826            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1827        else:
1828            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1829        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1830        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1832    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1833        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1834
1835        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1836        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1837            args = self.expressions(expression)
1838            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1839            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1840            values = (
1841                f"({values})"
1842                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1843                else values
1844            )
1845            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1846
1847        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1848        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1849        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1850
1851        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1852
1853        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1854            row = tup.expressions
1855
1856            if i == 0 and column_names:
1857                row = [
1858                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1859                ]
1860
1861            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1862
1863        if self.pretty:
1864            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1865            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1866            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1867            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1868            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1869
1870        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1871        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1872        return f"({unions}){alias}"
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1874    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1875        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1877    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1878        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1879        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1880        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1882    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1883        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1885    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1886        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1887        if group_by_all is True:
1888            modifier = " ALL"
1889        elif group_by_all is False:
1890            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1891        else:
1892            modifier = ""
1893
1894        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1895
1896        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1897        grouping_sets = (
1898            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1899        )
1900
1901        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1902        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1903            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1904        else:
1905            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1906            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1907
1908        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1909        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1910            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1911        else:
1912            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1913            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1914
1915        groupings = csv(
1916            grouping_sets,
1917            cube_sql,
1918            rollup_sql,
1919            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1920            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1921        )
1922
1923        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1924            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1925
1926        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1928    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1929        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1930        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
1932    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1933        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1934        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1935        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1936        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1937        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1938        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
1940    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1941        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1943    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1944        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1945            side = None
1946        else:
1947            side = expression.side
1948
1949        op_sql = " ".join(
1950            op
1951            for op in (
1952                expression.method,
1953                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1954                side,
1955                expression.kind,
1956                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1957            )
1958            if op
1959        )
1960        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1961        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1962        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1963        using = expression.args.get("using")
1964
1965        if not on_sql and using:
1966            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1967
1968        this = expression.this
1969        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1970
1971        if on_sql:
1972            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1973            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1974            if using:
1975                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1976            else:
1977                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1978        elif not op_sql:
1979            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1980                return f" {this_sql}"
1981
1982            return f", {this_sql}"
1983
1984        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
1985            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1986
1987        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1989    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1990        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1991        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1992        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1994    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1995        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1996
1997        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1998        if cross_apply is True:
1999            op = "INNER JOIN "
2000        elif cross_apply is False:
2001            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2002        else:
2003            op = ""
2004
2005        return f"{op}LATERAL"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
2007    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2008        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2009
2010        if expression.args.get("view"):
2011            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2012            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2013            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2014            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2015            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2016            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2017
2018        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2019        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2020        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2022    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2023        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2024
2025        args = [
2026            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2027            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2028            if e
2029        ]
2030
2031        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2032        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2033        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2034        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2035
2036        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
2038    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2039        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2040        value = expression.expression
2041        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2042        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2043        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2044        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
2046    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2047        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2048        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2049        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2050        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2051        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2052        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2053        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2054        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
2056    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2057        expressions = (
2058            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2059        )
2060        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2061        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
2063    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2064        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
2066    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2067        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2068            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2069            return ""
2070
2071        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2072        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2073        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2074        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2075
2076        if wait is not None:
2077            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2078                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2079            else:
2080                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2081
2082        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
2084    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2085        text = expression.this or ""
2086        if expression.is_string:
2087            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2088        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2090    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2091        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2092            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2093            text = "".join(
2094                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2095            )
2096
2097        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2098            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2099        )
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
2101    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2102        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2103        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2104        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2105        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2106        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2107        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2108        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2109        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2110        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2111        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2112        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2114    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2115        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
2117    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2118        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2120    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2121        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2122        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2123        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2124        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2125        interpolated_values = [
2126            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2127            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2128        ]
2129        interpolate = (
2130            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2131        )
2132        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
def withfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithFill) -> str:
2134    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2135        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2136        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2137        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2138        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2139        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2140        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2141        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
2143    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2144        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
2146    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2147        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
2149    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2150        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
2152    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2153        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2154        asc = not desc
2155
2156        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2157        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2158        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2159        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2160        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2161
2162        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2163
2164        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2165        nulls_sort_change = ""
2166        if nulls_first and (
2167            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2168        ):
2169            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2170        elif (
2171            nulls_last
2172            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2173            and not nulls_are_last
2174        ):
2175            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2176
2177        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2178        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2179            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2180            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2181                self.unsupported(
2182                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2183                )
2184                nulls_sort_change = ""
2185            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2186                if expression.this.is_int:
2187                    self.unsupported(
2188                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2189                    )
2190                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2191                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2192                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2193                nulls_sort_change = ""
2194
2195        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2196        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2197
2198        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2200    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2201        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2202        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2203
2204        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2205
2206        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2208    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2209        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2210        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2211        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2212        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2213        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2214        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2215        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2216        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2217        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2218        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2219        definition_sqls = [
2220            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2221            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2222        ]
2223        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2224        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2225        body = "".join(
2226            (
2227                partition,
2228                order,
2229                measures,
2230                rows,
2231                after,
2232                pattern,
2233                define,
2234            )
2235        )
2236        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2237        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2238        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2240    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2241        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2242
2243        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2244            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2245        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2246            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2247
2248        return csv(
2249            *sqls,
2250            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2251            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2252            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2253            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2254            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2255            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2256            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2257            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2258            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2259            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2260            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2261            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2262            self.options_modifier(expression),
2263            sep="",
2264        )
def options_modifier(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> str:
2266    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2267        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2268        return f" {options}" if options else ""
def queryoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryOption) -> str:
2270    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2271        return ""
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
2273    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2274        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2275    ) -> t.List[str]:
2276        return [
2277            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2278            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2279        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
2281    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2282        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2283        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2284        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
2286    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2287        into = expression.args.get("into")
2288        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2289            into.pop()
2290
2291        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2292        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2293        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2294        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2295
2296        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2297        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2298            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2299            limit.pop()
2300        else:
2301            top = ""
2302
2303        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2304
2305        if kind:
2306            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2307                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2308            else:
2309                if kind == "STRUCT":
2310                    expressions = self.expressions(
2311                        sqls=[
2312                            self.sql(
2313                                exp.Struct(
2314                                    expressions=[
2315                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2316                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2317                                        else e
2318                                        for e in expression.expressions
2319                                    ]
2320                                )
2321                            )
2322                        ]
2323                    )
2324                kind = ""
2325
2326        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2327        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2328        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2329        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2330        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2331            expression,
2332            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2333            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2334            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2335        )
2336
2337        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2338
2339        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2340            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2341                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2342            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2343                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2344            else:
2345                table_kind = ""
2346            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2347
2348        return sql
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2350    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2351        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2352        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2353        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2355    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2356        if expression.expressions:
2357            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2358        return ""
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
2360    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2361        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2362        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2363        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2364        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2365        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2366        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2367        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
2369    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2370        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2371        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
2373    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2374        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2375        kind = expression.text("kind")
2376        if kind:
2377            kind = f"{kind}."
2378        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
2380    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2381        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
2383    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2384        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2385        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2386
2387        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2388        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2389
2390        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2391        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
2393    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2394        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2395        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def set_operations(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2397    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2398        if not self.OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS:
2399            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2400            order = expression.args.get("order")
2401
2402            if limit or order:
2403                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2404
2405                if limit:
2406                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2407                if order:
2408                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2409                return self.sql(select)
2410
2411        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2412        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2413
2414        while stack:
2415            node = stack.pop()
2416
2417            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
2418                stack.append(node.expression)
2419                stack.append(
2420                    self.maybe_comment(
2421                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2422                        comments=node.comments,
2423                        separated=True,
2424                    )
2425                )
2426                stack.append(node.this)
2427            else:
2428                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2429
2430        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2431        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2432        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2434    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2435        return self.set_operations(expression)
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2437    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2438        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2439        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2440        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2441        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2443    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2444        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2445
2446        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2447        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2448
2449        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2450            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2451                alias.append("columns", offset)
2452
2453        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2454            columns = alias.columns
2455            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2456        else:
2457            alias = self.sql(alias)
2458
2459        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2460        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2461            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2462        else:
2463            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2464                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2465            elif offset:
2466                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2467            else:
2468                suffix = alias
2469
2470        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
def prewhere_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PreWhere) -> str:
2472    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2473        return ""
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
2475    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2476        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2477        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
2479    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2480        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2481        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2482        order = expression.args.get("order")
2483        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2484        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2485        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2486        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2487
2488        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2489
2490        first = expression.args.get("first")
2491        if first is None:
2492            first = ""
2493        else:
2494            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2495
2496        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2497            return f"{this} {alias}"
2498
2499        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2500        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2502    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2503        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2504        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
2506    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2507        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2508        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2509        end = (
2510            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2511            or "CURRENT ROW"
2512        )
2513        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
2515    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2516        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2517        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2518        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
2520    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2521        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2522        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2523        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2524        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_offset_expressions( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2526    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2527        return apply_index_offset(
2528            expression.this,
2529            expression.expressions,
2530            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2531        )
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
2533    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2534        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2535        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2536        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
2538    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2539        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
2541    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2542        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2543        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2544            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2545                this = self.wrap(this)
2546            return f"ANY{this}"
2547        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
2549    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2550        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
2552    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2553        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2554        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2555
2556        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2557            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2558            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2559
2560        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2561
2562        if default:
2563            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2564
2565        statements.append("END")
2566
2567        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2568            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2569
2570        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
2572    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2573        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2574        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2575        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
2577    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2578        order = expression.args.get("order")
2579        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2580        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
2582    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2583        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2584        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2585        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
2587    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2588        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2589
2590        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2591            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2592        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2593            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2594        else:
2595            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def convert_concat_args( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat | sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2597    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2598        args = expression.expressions
2599        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2600            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2601
2602        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2603            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2604
2605        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2606            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2607
2608        return args
def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str:
2610    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2611        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2612
2613        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2614        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2615            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2616
2617        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def concatws_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> str:
2619    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2620        return self.func(
2621            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2622        )
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
2624    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2625        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2626        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2628    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2629        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2630        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2631        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2632        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2633        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2634        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2635        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2636        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2638    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2639        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2640        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2641        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2642        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2644    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2645        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2647    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2648        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2649        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2650        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2652    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2653        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONPath) -> str:
2655    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2656        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2657        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2659    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2660        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2661            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2662            if not callable(transform):
2663                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2664                return ""
2665
2666            return transform(self, expression)
2667
2668        if isinstance(expression, int):
2669            return str(expression)
2670
2671        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2672            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2673            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2674        else:
2675            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2676            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2677
2678        return escaped
def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str:
2680    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2681        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
def jsonobject_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject | sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2683    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2684        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2685        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2686
2687        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2688        if unique_keys is not None:
2689            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2690        else:
2691            unique_keys = ""
2692
2693        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2694        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2695        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2696        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2697
2698        return self.func(
2699            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2700            *expression.expressions,
2701            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2702        )
def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2704    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2705        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str:
2707    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2708        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2709        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2710        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2711        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2712        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2713        return self.func(
2714            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2715        )
def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2717    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2718        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2719        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2720        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2721        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2722        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2723        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2724        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2725        return self.func(
2726            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2727            this,
2728            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2729        )
def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2731    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2732        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2733        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2734        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2735
2736        if nested_schema:
2737            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2738
2739        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2740        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2741        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2742        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str:
2744    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2745        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str:
2747    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2748        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2749        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2750        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2751        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2752        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2753        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2754        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2755        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2756        return self.func(
2757            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2758        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2760    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2761        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2762        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2763        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2764        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2765        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2766        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2768    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2769        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2770        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2771        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2772        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2773        with_ = (
2774            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2775            if expressions
2776            else ""
2777        )
2778        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2780    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2781        query = expression.args.get("query")
2782        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2783        field = expression.args.get("field")
2784        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2785
2786        if query:
2787            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2788        elif unnest:
2789            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2790        elif field:
2791            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2792        else:
2793            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2794
2795        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2797    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2798        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2800    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2801        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2802        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2803            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2804        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2805
2806        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2807            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2808            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2809
2810        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2811        if this:
2812            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2813            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2814
2815        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2817    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2818        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2820    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2821        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2822        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2823        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2824        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2825        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2826        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2828    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2829        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2831    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2832        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2833        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2835    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2836        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2837        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2838        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2839        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2841    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2842        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2844    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2845        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2846        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2847        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PivotAlias) -> str:
2849    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2850        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2851        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2852
2853        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2854            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2855        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2856            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2857
2858        return self.alias_sql(expression)
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2860    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2861        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def atindex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2863    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2864        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2865        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2866        return f"{this} AT {index}"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2868    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2869        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2870        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2871        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2873    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2874        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2875        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2876        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2878    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2879        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2881    def and_sql(
2882        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2883    ) -> str:
2884        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
def or_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2886    def or_sql(
2887        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2888    ) -> str:
2889        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
def xor_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2891    def xor_sql(
2892        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2893    ) -> str:
2894        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
def connector_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2896    def connector_sql(
2897        self,
2898        expression: exp.Connector,
2899        op: str,
2900        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2901    ) -> str:
2902        if stack is not None:
2903            if expression.expressions:
2904                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2905            else:
2906                stack.append(expression.right)
2907                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2908                    for comment in expression.comments:
2909                        if comment:
2910                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2911                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2912            return op
2913
2914        stack = [expression]
2915        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2916        ops = set()
2917
2918        while stack:
2919            node = stack.pop()
2920            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2921                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2922            else:
2923                sql = self.sql(node)
2924                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2925                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2926                else:
2927                    sqls.append(sql)
2928
2929        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2930        return sep.join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2932    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2933        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2935    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2936        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2938    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2939        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2941    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2942        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2944    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2945        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2947    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2948        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2950    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2951        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2952        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2953        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2954        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2955        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2956        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2957        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
2959    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2960        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2961        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2963    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2964        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
2966    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2967        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2968            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2969        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
2971    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2972        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
2974    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2975        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2976        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2977        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
2978        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2979        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2980        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2982    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2983        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2984        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2985        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2986        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2987        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2988        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2989        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2990        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2991        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2993    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2994        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2995        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2996        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2997        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2998
2999        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3000            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3001
3002        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
3004    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3005        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
3007    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3008        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3009        if chain is not None:
3010            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3011
3012        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
3014    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3015        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3016        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3017        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
3019    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3020        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3021
3022        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3023        if dtype:
3024            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3025            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3026            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3027            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3028            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3029
3030        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3031        if default:
3032            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3033
3034        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3035        if comment:
3036            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3037
3038        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3039        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3040
3041        if not drop and not allow_null:
3042            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3043
3044        if allow_null is not None:
3045            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3046            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3047
3048        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3050    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3051        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3052        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3053            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3054        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3056    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3057        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3058        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3059        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3060        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3061        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
3063    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3064        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3065            # Remove db from tables
3066            expression = expression.transform(
3067                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3068            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3069        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3070        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameColumn) -> str:
3072    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3073        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3074        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3075        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3076        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
def alterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSet) -> str:
3078    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3079        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3080        return f"SET {exprs}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
3082    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3083        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3084
3085        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3086            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3087        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3088            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3089        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3090            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3091        else:
3092            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3093
3094        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3095        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3096        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3097        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3098        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3099        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3100        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
3102    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3103        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3104            return self.expressions(
3105                expression,
3106                key="actions",
3107                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3108            )
3109        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
3111    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3112        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3113        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3114        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
3116    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3117        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
3119    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3120        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3121
3122        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3123            case = exp.case()
3124            for arg in expression.expressions:
3125                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3126            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3127
3128        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3129
3130        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3131        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3132        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3134    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3135        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
3137    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3138        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
def havingmax_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HavingMax) -> str:
3140    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3141        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3142        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3143        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3144        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
3146    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3147        return self.sql(
3148            exp.Cast(
3149                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3150                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3151            )
3152        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
3154    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3155        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3156            return self.func(
3157                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3158            )
3159        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
3161    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3162        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3163
3164        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3165            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3166
3167        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3168            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3169                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3170
3171        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3172            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3173                return self.sql(
3174                    exp.cast(
3175                        l / r,
3176                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3177                    )
3178                )
3179
3180        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
3182    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3183        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
3185    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3186        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
3188    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3189        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
3191    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3192        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3194    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3195        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
3197    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3198        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
3200    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3201        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
3203    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3204        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
3206    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3207        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
3209    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3210        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
3212    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3213        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
3215    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3216        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3217            return self.sql(
3218                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3219            )
3220        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
3222    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3223        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
3225    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3226        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
3228    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3229        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
3231    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3232        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
3234    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3235        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
3237    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3238        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
3240    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3241        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
3243    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3244        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3246    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3247        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3249    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3250        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
3252    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3253        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
3255    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3256        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
3258    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3259        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def try_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Try) -> str:
3261    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3262        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3263            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3264            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3265
3266        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str:
3268    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3269        this = expression.this
3270        expr = expression.expression
3271
3272        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3273            this, expr = expr, this
3274        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3275            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3276                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3277
3278            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3279
3280        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
3282    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3283        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3284        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3285        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3286        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3287        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3289    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3290        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3291        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
3293    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3294        args = []
3295
3296        for key in expression.arg_types:
3297            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3298
3299            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3300                for value in arg_value:
3301                    args.append(value)
3302            elif arg_value is not None:
3303                args.append(arg_value)
3304
3305        if self.normalize_functions:
3306            name = expression.sql_name()
3307        else:
3308            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3309
3310        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
3312    def func(
3313        self,
3314        name: str,
3315        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3316        prefix: str = "(",
3317        suffix: str = ")",
3318    ) -> str:
3319        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
3321    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3322        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3323        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3324            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3325        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def too_wide(self, args: Iterable) -> bool:
3327    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3328        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
def format_time( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, inverse_time_mapping: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None, inverse_time_trie: Optional[Dict] = None) -> Optional[str]:
3330    def format_time(
3331        self,
3332        expression: exp.Expression,
3333        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3334        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3335    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3336        return format_time(
3337            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3338            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3339            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3340        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '', dynamic: bool = False, new_line: bool = False) -> str:
3342    def expressions(
3343        self,
3344        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3345        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3346        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3347        flat: bool = False,
3348        indent: bool = True,
3349        skip_first: bool = False,
3350        skip_last: bool = False,
3351        sep: str = ", ",
3352        prefix: str = "",
3353        dynamic: bool = False,
3354        new_line: bool = False,
3355    ) -> str:
3356        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3357
3358        if not expressions:
3359            return ""
3360
3361        if flat:
3362            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3363
3364        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3365
3366        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3367        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
3368            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3369
3370        result_sqls = []
3371        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3372            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3373            if not sql:
3374                continue
3375
3376            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3377
3378            if self.pretty:
3379                if self.leading_comma:
3380                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3381                else:
3382                    result_sqls.append(
3383                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3384                    )
3385            else:
3386                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3387
3388        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3389            if new_line:
3390                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3391                result_sqls.append("")
3392            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
3393        else:
3394            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3395        return (
3396            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3397            if indent
3398            else result_sql
3399        )
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3401    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3402        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3403        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3404        if flat:
3405            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3406        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
3408    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3409        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3410        if not property_name:
3411            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3412        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
3414    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3415        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
3417    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3418        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3420    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3421        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3422        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3423        expressions = (
3424            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3425        )
3426        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
3428    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3429        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3430        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3431        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
3433    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3434        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
3436    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3437        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3438        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3439        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3440        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3441
3442        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3443        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3444            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3445            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3446            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3447            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3448        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3449            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3450                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3451            else:
3452                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3453        else:
3454            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3455        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
3457    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3458        table = expression.this
3459        table_alias = ""
3460
3461        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3462        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3463            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3464            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3465
3466        this = self.sql(table)
3467        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3468        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3469        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3470        sep = self.sep()
3471
3472        return self.prepend_ctes(
3473            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3474        )
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
3476    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3477        if expression.args.get("format"):
3478            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3479
3480        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
def tonumber_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToNumber) -> str:
3482    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3483        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3484            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3485            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3486
3487        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3488        if not fmt:
3489            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3490            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3491
3492        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
3494    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3495        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3496        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3497        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3498        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3499        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
3501    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3502        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3503        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3504        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3505        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3507    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3508        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
3510    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3511        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3513    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3514        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3515        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3516        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3517        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3518        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
3520    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3521        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3522        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3523
3524        if having:
3525            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3526
3527        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
3529    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3530        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3531        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3532        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3533        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3534        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3535        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3536        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3537        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3538        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3539        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3540        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3541        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3542        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3544    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3545        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3546        if key_block_size:
3547            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3548
3549        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3550        if using:
3551            return f"USING {using}"
3552
3553        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3554        if parser:
3555            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3556
3557        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3558        if comment:
3559            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3560
3561        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3562        if visible is not None:
3563            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3564
3565        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3566        if engine_attr:
3567            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3568
3569        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3570        if secondary_engine_attr:
3571            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3572
3573        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3574        return ""
def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3576    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3577        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3578        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3580    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3581        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3582        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3583        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3584        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3585        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3586        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3587        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3588        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3589        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3590        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3591        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
3593    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3594        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3595            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3596
3597        case = exp.Case().when(
3598            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3599            expression.args["true"],
3600            copy=False,
3601        )
3602        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3603        if else_cond:
3604            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3605
3606        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
3608    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3609        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3610        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3611        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3612        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3613        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3614        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3616    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3617        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str:
3619    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3620        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str:
3622    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3623        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3624        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3625        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3626        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3627        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3628        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn) -> str:
3630    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3631        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3632        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3633        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh) -> str:
3635    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3636        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3637        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3638        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
def operator_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Operator) -> str:
3640    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3641        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
def toarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToArray) -> str:
3643    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3644        arg = expression.this
3645        if not arg.type:
3646            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3647
3648            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3649
3650        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3651            return self.sql(arg)
3652
3653        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3654        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3656    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3657        this = expression.this
3658        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3659            return self.sql(this)
3660
3661        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3663    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3664        this = expression.this
3665        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3666            return self.sql(this)
3667
3668        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3670    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3671        this = expression.this
3672        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3673
3674        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3675            return self.sql(
3676                exp.cast(
3677                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3678                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3679                )
3680            )
3681
3682        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3683            return self.sql(this)
3684
3685        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
def unixdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixDate) -> str:
3687    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3688        return self.sql(
3689            exp.func(
3690                "DATEDIFF",
3691                expression.this,
3692                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3693                "day",
3694            )
3695        )
def lastday_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LastDay) -> str:
3697    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3698        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3699            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3700
3701        unit = expression.text("unit")
3702        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3703            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3704
3705        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
def dateadd_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd) -> str:
3707    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3708        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3709
3710        return self.func(
3711            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3712        )
def arrayany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAny) -> str:
3714    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3715        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3716            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3717            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3718            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3719            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3720
3721        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3722
3723        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3724        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3725            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3726
3727        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def generateseries_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3729    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3730        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3731        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def struct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Struct) -> str:
3733    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3734        expression.set(
3735            "expressions",
3736            [
3737                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3738                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3739                else e
3740                for e in expression.expressions
3741            ],
3742        )
3743
3744        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionRange) -> str:
3746    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3747        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3748        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3749
3750        return f"{low} TO {high}"
def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TruncateTable) -> str:
3752    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3753        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3754        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3755
3756        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3757
3758        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3759        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3760
3761        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3762        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3763
3764        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3765        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3766
3767        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3768        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3769
3770        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
def convert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Convert) -> str:
3774    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3775        to = expression.this
3776        value = expression.expression
3777        style = expression.args.get("style")
3778        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3779        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3780
3781        if not to or not value:
3782            return ""
3783
3784        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3785        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3786            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3787
3788        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3789        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3790
3791        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3792        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3793            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3794
3795            style_value = style.name
3796            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3797            if not converted_style:
3798                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3799
3800            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3801
3802            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3803                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3804            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3805                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3806            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3807                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3808            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3809                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3810
3811        if not transformed:
3812            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3813
3814        return self.sql(transformed)
def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CopyParameter) -> str:
3870    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3871        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3872
3873        if expression.expressions:
3874            upper = option.upper()
3875
3876            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
3877            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
3878
3879            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
3880            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
3881            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
3882            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
3883
3884        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3885
3886        if not value:
3887            return option
3888
3889        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3890
3891        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
def credentials_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Credentials) -> str:
3893    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3894        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3895        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3896            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3897            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3898            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3899        else:
3900            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3901            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3902            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
3903
3904        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3905        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
3906
3907        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3908        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3909
3910        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3911        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3912
3913        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3914        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3915
3916        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
def copy_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Copy) -> str:
3918    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3919        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3920        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3921
3922        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3923        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
3924        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
3925        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3926
3927        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3928        params = self.expressions(
3929            expression,
3930            key="params",
3931            sep=sep,
3932            new_line=True,
3933            skip_last=True,
3934            skip_first=True,
3935            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
3936        )
3937
3938        if params:
3939            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
3940                params = f" WITH ({params})"
3941            elif not self.pretty:
3942                params = f" {params}"
3943
3944        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
def semicolon_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Semicolon) -> str:
3946    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
3947        return ""
def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
3949    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
3950        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
3951        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
3952        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
3953        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
3954        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
3955
3956        if filter_col or retention_period:
3957            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
3958
3959        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint) -> str:
3961    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
3962        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
3963    ) -> str:
3964        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3965        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3966        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3967        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
def gapfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GapFill) -> str:
3969    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
3970        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3971        this = f"TABLE {this}"
3972        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])